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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


:3» 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


STATE  NOKMAL  SCHOOL, 

LtOS  AflGELiES,  CAIi. 


6y  the  same  author  and  publisher. 

Prussian  Schools  through  American  Eyes. 

SFKCIMIKN    TKSTT]VIONlA.L.S. 

This  printed  report  is  before  us,  and  proves  that  Mr.  Parsons  has  mad^im- 
self  thoroughly  familiar  with  our  system  of  elementary  instruction.  *  *  It 
will  be  readily  seen  from  what  has  been  said  that  Mr.  Parsons  is  a  warm  friend  of 
our  schools,  which  he  has  examined  with  the  eye  of  a  practical  schoolman,  hop- 
ing that  the  information  which  he  has  gained  will  be  useful  in  New  York.  As 
County  School  Commissioner  he  learned  the  needs  of  American  schools,  and  his 
study  of  the  Prussian  system  of  instruction  has  enabled  him  to  suggest  the  reme- 
dies. We  are  much  pleased  by  the  just  recognition  of  the  ability,  faithfulness, 
and  disinterestedness  of  the  German  teacher,  and  trust  that  this  scholarly  report 
will  find  a  wide  circle  of  appreciative  readers. — Translated  from  KathoUsche 
Zeitschrift  fur  Eniehung  tmd  tjnterHcht,  Dusseld&jf,  1891. 

The  report  deals  only  with  elementary  education,  and  is  of  special  worth 
because  of  the  particularity  with  which  he  describes  the  system  in  use.  The 
rigid  and  uniform  practice  in  Prussia  makes  this  possible,  since  the  observer  is 
not  bothered  by  too  much  freedom  of  exercise  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Seeing 
one  school  he  sees  all. — Atlantic  Monthly,  Aug.,  1891. 

There  is  much  that  is  instructive  and  worth  the  earnest  consideration  of  our 
State  Legislatures  and  our  teachers  of  youth  in  Mr.  James  Russell  Parsons's 
"Prussian  Schools  through  American  Eyes."  The  Prussian  elementary  school 
system  is  the  oldest,  and  is  generally  admitted  to  be  the  best  in  Europe  ;  Mr. 
Parsons  shows  pretty  conclusively  in  his  admirable  report  the  marked  inferiori- 
ties of  the  New  York  elementary  system  in  comparison  with  it.  The  great 
advantages  of  the  Prussian  system  are  secured  by  legislation  insuring  a  full  and 
regular  attendance  of  the  children  of  school  age  ;  definite  uniform  qualifications 
for  supervising  officers  as  well  as  teachers  ;  an  approximate  equalization  of  local 
taxation  for  school  purposes ;  State  supervision  of  instruction  given  in  private 
schools  and  families.  In  these  particulars  the  schools  not  only  of  New  York  but 
many  other  States  are  deficient ;  more  particularly  is  this  so  in  the  matter  of 
uniform  qualifications  for  supervising  officers,  many  of  whom  are  sadly  in  need  of 
an  elementary  course  themselves. — New  England  Magazine,  June,  1891. 

Mr.  Parsons  is  to  be  congratulated  on  having  compiled  this  painstaking 
statement,  and  Mr.  Bardeen  on  having  rescued  it  from  the  undeserved  obscurity 
of  an  official  publication.  The  teacher  who  wishes  to  know  exactly  what  the 
much  praised  Prussian  elementary  schools  do,  and  on  what  their  excellence 
depends,  will  find  it  set  forth  here  compactly  and  clearly.  The  New  York  reader 
will  have  the  additional  benefit  of  frequent  comparisons  between  Prussian  educa- 
tional details  and  those  of  his  own  State.  All  those  wise  persons  who  are  sure 
that  America  can  work  out  its  own  pedagogic  salvation  without  learning  from  the 
experience  of  any  other  nation,  especially  Germany,  should  not  read  this  book. 
It  might  disturb  their  equanimity. — Educational  Bevietc,  June,  1891. 

Mr.  Parsons  was  school  commissioner  of  Rensselaer  County,  from  1885  to 
1888,  when  he  was  made  U.  S.  consul  at  Aix-la-Chappelle.  During  his  residence 
there  he  enjoyed  special  facilities  and  opportunities  for  information  regarding  the 
Prussian  school  system,  and  his  report  gives  a  detailed  description  of  the  plan  of 
organization  and  the  operation  of  the  schools,  which  is  here  presented  in  a  more 
compact  form  than  any  other  which  is  available  to  American  readers.  The  work " 
is  divided  into  seventeen  chapters,  wherein  the  reader  follows  the  would-be  ele- 
mentary teacher  through  the  different  grades  to  the  normal  schools  and  the  final 
examination.  These  chapters  give  a  clear  statement  of  just  what  the  Prussian 
schools  are  doing,  and  will  enable  educators  to  see  their  strong  points  and  discern 
what  is  weak  in  our  system. — Mw  England  Journal  of  Education,  May  21,  1891. 


FRENCH  SCHOOLS 


TMOOCH  AMEBICAN  EIES 


A   Report  to  the  Ne^v  York  State  Department 
of  Public   Instruction 


— BY — 

JAMES  RUSSELL  PARSONS,  JR., 

INSPECTOR   OF  TEACHERS'   CLASSES,    AND   FORMERLY   U.    S. 
CONSUL   AT   AIX-LA-CHAPELLE    (aACHEN) 


SYRACUSE,     N.     Y. : 

C.    W.    BARDEEN,    PUBLISHER 

1892 


Copyright,    1892,     by    C.     W.     BARDEEN 


MAR  ^^  1900 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/frenclisclioolstlirOOparsiala 


LA 
PREFACE 


This  account  of  the  French  elementary  school  system  was  pre- 
pared at  the  request  of  the  Honorable  Andrew  S.  Draper,  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  for  the  State  of  Xew  York,  and 
appears  in  the  thirty-eighth  annual  report,  transmitted  to  the  Legis- 
lature Jan.  20,  1892. 

The  following  extract  from  Superintendent  Draper's  report 
explains  itself  : — 

Comparisons  of  our  own  school  system  with  those  of  other  States  or  of 
foreign  countries  arc  interesting  and  instructive,  and  afford  us  some  means  of 
determining  the  wisdom  of  our  efforts  to  provide  the  best  possible  educational 
advantages  for  the  children  of  the  State.  Sometliing  can  be  gained  from  the 
study  of  the  official  foreign  reports,  much  more  by  actual  visitation  of  foreign 
schools  and  contact  with  their  school  officers  and  teachers. 

In  1889,  a  commission  appointed  to  make  inquiry  and  report  to  the  Legis- 
lature of  Pennsylvania  published  an  exhaustive  report  on  the  condition  of  in- 
dustrial education  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

In  1884,  the  New  York  Legislature  considered  but  did  not  pass  a  bill  pro- 
viding for  the  creation  of  a  commission  to  examine  the  school  system  in  this  State 
and  of  such  other  States  and  countries  as  might  be  deemed  expedient  and 
necessary.  The  commission  was  to  report  such  changes  in  the  school  system  of 
the  State  as  were  deemed  wise,  and  $8,000  were  to  be  appropriated  for  salaries 
and  expenses  of  the  three  commissioners. 

Commissions,  if  composed  of  persons  thoroughly  fitted  for  the  work,  must 
of  necessity  involve  considerable  expense.  In  the  absence  of  legislation  in  this 
direction,  the  Department  has  been  fortunate  in  obtaining,  virtually  without  cost 
to  the  State,  comprehensive  and  detailed  descriptions  of  the  plan  of  organiza- 
tion and  of  the  operations  of  school  systems  in  foreign  countries. 

The  report  submitted  in  1891  contained  a  well  considered  account  of  Prus- 
sian elementary  schools,  which  has  attracted  mnch  attention  in  educational 
circles  throughout  the  country.  It  was  prepared,  at  my  request,  by  J.  Russell 
Parsons,  Jr.,  A.  M.,  school  commissioner  in  Rensselaer  county  from  1885  to  1888, 
and  student  of  European  school  systems  and  United  States  Consul  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  from  1888  to  1891. 

The  present  report  is  accompanied  by  a  scholarly  paper  on  primarj-  instruc- 
tion in  France  (Appendix,  Exhibit  No.  4),  which  was  also  prepared,  at  my 
request,  by  Mr.  Parsons,  now  one  of  the  inspectors  of  teachers'  training  classes. 

Mr.  Parsons  visited  France  during  the  last  summer  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing the  French  school  system.  His  report  is  surprising  in  the  clearness  and  per- 
spicuity of  its  statements  as  well  as  in  its  completeness  and  comprehensiveness, 
and  affords  us  valuable  aid  in  determining  our  own  procedure. 

These  two  papers  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  educational  systems  of  the  two 
leading  countries  of  Europe  which  pay  the  "closest  attention  to  elementary 
schools.  In  the  consideration  of  subjects  connected  with  the  schools  of  New 
York  and  in  the  statistics  presented  in  this  report,  frequent  occasion  is  found  for 
reference  to  the  organization  and  operations  of  the  Prussian  and  French  elemen- 
tary schools,  as  they  prove  convenient  and  instructive  standards  of  comparison. 

I  may  add  of  this  what  I  said  of  the  German  report  of  last  year, 
that  it  is  altogether  the  clearest  statement  that  has  ever  appeared  in 
English  of  just  what  these  schools  are  doing. 

Syracuse,  Feb.  3,  1892.  C.  W.  BARDEEN. 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE. 


Drawn  by  a   Pupil  of  a   Public  Lower  Primary  School  in   Pans. 


CONTENTS. 


PAOB. 

Preface 7-9 

Introduction 9-11 

First  Chapteb. 
Political  organization 11-13 

Second  Chapteb. 
Establishments  for  primary  instruction 13-15 

Thibd  Chapteb. 
General  development 15-19 

Fourth  Chapteb. 

Population  of  France  {not  including  Algeria) 19-22 

School  population 20-22 

Density  of  population 22 

Fifth  Chapter. 

Number  and  division  of  institutions  for  primary  instruction 23-26 

Ecoles  maternelles 23 

Lower  and  upper  primary  schools 23 

Division  of  public  primary  schools 23 

Division  of  private  primary  schools 23 

Condition  of  schools * 24 

Classes 24-26 

ifccoles  maternelles 24 

Lower  and  upper  primary  schools 24-26 

Teachers 26 

ficoles  maternelles 26 

Lower  and  upper  primary  schools 26 

Batio  between  teachers  and  pupils 26 

Sixth  Chapter. 

Statistics  relating  to  the  preparation  of  teachers 27-28 

Males 27 

Females 27 

Facilities  for  professional  training 27,    28 

Teachers' examiimtjons 28 


Seventh  Chapter.  paob- 

Statistics  relating  to  inspection 28,    29 

Cost  of  primary  inspection 29 

Eighth  Chapter. 

Statistics  relating  to  auxiliary  institutions 30-33 

Classes  of  adults 30 

School  libraries 30,  31 

Pedagogic  libraries 31 

School  savings  banks 31,  32 

Caisses  des  dcoles 32 

Musee  podagogique 32,  33 

Miscellaneous 33 

Ninth  Chapter. 
Statistics  showing  the  condition  of  primary  instruction  in  Algeria 33 

Tenth  Chapter. 
Private  schools 34-35 

Eleventh  Chapter. 
*   Establishment  and  maintenance  of  public  schools 35-37 

Twelfth  Chapter. 
Inspection 38-41 

Regulation  of  inspection 41 

Thirteenth  Chapter. 
Teachers'  conferences 41,    42 

Fourteenth  Chapter. 
The  teaching  force 42-52 

-*  General  certillcates 42-16 

^  Special  certificates 46-50 

Classes  of  teachers — Penalties  and  recompenses 50-52 

Fifteenth  Chapter. 
Compulsory  education 52-58 

Commissions  scolaires 53,    54 

Certificate  of  primary  studies 54,    55 

Other  provisions  of  the  compulsory  education  law 56-58 

Sixteenth  Chapter. 

Expenses  of  public  primary  instruction  and  salaries 58-63 

Salaries 60-63 

Observations 63 


5 

Seventeenth  Chapter.  paob. 

Military  service 63,    G4 

Observations CA 

Eighteenth  Chapter. 
Pensions G4,    65 

Nineteenth  Chapter. 

Ecoles  maternelles  and  classes  enfantines 65-77 

General  organization 65-67 

Pedagogic  organization 67-72 

Construction  and  furniture  of  ^coles  maternelles 72-77 

General  conditions 72,    73 

Exercise  halls 73,    74 

Court,  kitchen  and  play-ground 74 

Privies 74,    75 

Lodgings 75 

Furniture 75,    76 

Covered  court 76 

Supplies 77 

Observation 77 

Twentieth  Chapter. 
Lower  primary  schools 77-111 

General  and  pedagogic  organization  .  77-87 

Division  of  the  course  of  study  in  lower  primary  schools 87-92 

Physical  education 87,    88 

Intellectual  education 88,    89 

Moral  education 90-92 

Construction  and  furniture  of  lower  primary  schools 92-97 

General  conditions 92,    93 

Lodgings  of  the  concierge 93 

Cloak-rooms  —  Halls  —  Stairways 93,    94 

Class 94,    95 

Salle  for  drawing  —Workshop  for  manual  training 95 

Covered  court  (preau)  — Dependencies  of  the  preau  — Gymnasium  —    95 

Playground  — Garden 95 

Privies  and  urinals  —  Vaults 96 

Lodgings  of  teacher  —  Lodgings  of  assistant  teachers    96 

Furniture  and  teaching  supplies 96,    97 

Official  programs  of  instruction  in  lower  primary  schools 98-109 

Physical  education 98,    99 


h 

PAOK. 

Intellectual  education 100-106 

Moral  education 106-109 

Time-tables  in  lower  primary  schools 110.  Ill 

Twenty-first  Chapter. 

Upper  primary  schools  and  cours  compl^mentaires 111-121 

Official  programs  of  instruction  in  upper  primary  schools  and  cours 

complementaires 113-121 

Physical  education    and    preparation   for  professional   apprentice- 
ship  * 113,  114 

Intellectual  education 114-120 

Moral  education 12( ,  121 

Twenty-second  Chapter. 

Schools  for  industrial  and  commercial  training 121,  123 

Industrial  schools  and  classes 121 

Commercial  schools  and  classes 122 

Observation 122,  123 

Twenty-third  Chapter. 
Primary  normal  schools 123-135 

Students 124,  125 

Course  of  study  in  primary  normal  schools 126-135 

Normal  schools  for  males 127-134 

Normal  schools  for  females 134,  135 

Conclusion 135,  136 


I'RIMAKY  INSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE. 


"  L'objet  de  renBeisnement  primalre  u'est  pas  d'embrasser  sur  lee  diverses  mattdres 
auxcinelles  il  touche  tout  ce  qu'll  est  possible  de  savoir,  mats  de  bien  apprendre  dans 
ohaonne  d'elles  ce  au'il  n'est  pas  permis  d'iKnorer."  —  Obbabd. 


PREFACE. 

The  belief  that  everything"  American  is  perfect  constitutes  a 
form  of  false  patriotism  which  seems  to  be  growing  in  this 
country,  particularly  in  the  field  of  journalism.  There  is  a 
large  and  increasing  class  of  men  who  can  not  bear  an  adverse 
opinion  touching  anything  American  "without  falling  into  those 
hysterics  of  holy  horror,  which  are  the  usual  refuge  of  ignorance  and 
stupidity."  If  we  are  to  realize,  however,  the  promise  of  becoming 
the  greatest  nation  in  the  world,  we  must  cultivate  the  power  of 
discrimination.  We  must  learn  to  reject  that  which  is  bad;  to 
adopt  and  perfect  that  which  is  good  wherever  it  may  be  foimd. 
"  The  true  greatness  of  a  people,"  said  M.  Victor  Cousin  in  1833, 
"  does  not  consist  in  borrowing  nothing  from  others,  but  in  bor- 
rowing from  all  whatever  is  good,  and  in  perfecting  whatever  it 
appropriates." 

There  is  no  branch  of  the  public  service  in  which  this  power  of 
discrimination  is  more  needed  than  in  primary  instruction.  Frtince 
has  succeeded  in  assimilating  all  that  is  good  in  the  systems  of 
elementary  education  of  other  countries  without  destroying  the 
unity  of  her  national  character.  What  France  has  done,  New  York 
can  and  should  do. 

The  problem  of  the  French  and  Prussitin  teacher  is  to  accomplish 
a  fixed  amount  of  work  in  a  set  time  with  a  given  number  of 
children  between  fixed  ages,  who  must  attend  school  regularly. 
What  is  the  problem  confronting  the  New  York  teacher?  To 
accomplish  an  indefinite  amount  of  work  in  an  indefinite  time  with 
an  indefinite  number  of  pupils  between  five  and  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  who  attend  school  when  they  feel  disposed  to  do  so.  Com- 
pared with  this,  the  secrets  of  perpetual  motion  and  of  the  squaring 
of  the  circle  are  as  nothing. 

Whatever  may  be  the  opinions  as  regards  secondary  and  higher 
education,  the  extent  to  which  they  should  be  gratuitous,  the  fields 
into  which  they  should  be  carried  by  the  State,  almost  all  civilized 


8 

people  are  unanimous  in  recognizing  the  universal  necessity  of  an 
elementary  education  in  those  schools  which  represent  the  body  of 
the  nation.  In  order  to  make  good  and  intelligent  citizens,  a 
minimum  of  school  work  is  essential,  and  the  most  enlightened 
have  now  settled  on  the  period  of  seven  or  eight  years  for  its 
accomplishment. 

As  stated  last  year  in  my  report  on  Prussian  elementary  schools, 
it  would  be  most  unjust  to  make  an  assertion  that  no  good  elemen- 
tary school  work  is  done  in  New  York  State.  I  have  visited  many 
schools  in  countries  of  the  old  world  as  well  as  in  New  York,  and 
have  never  seen  better  elementary  schools  than  the  best  schools 
here  at  home.  More  than  this,  I  am  aware  that  there  are  many 
schools  to-day  in  obscure  corners  of  my  own  county,  or  hidden 
among  the  hills  of  the  school  commissioner  districts,  which  no 
thoughtful  person  can  visit  without  being  most  favorably  impressed 
by  the  faithful,  conscientious  and  efficient  work  of  the  teachers. 
Working  for  very  small  salaries,  struggling  against  the  disadvan- 
tages of  irregular  attendance  and  a  short  school  year,  it  is  marvelous 
what  these  teachers  accomplish. 

But  it  is  in  vain  that  New  York  State  goes  on  expending  more 
and  more  each  year  for  educational  purposes.  Without  legislation 
insuring  a  full  and  regular  attendance  of  the  children  from  six  to 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age ;  without  a  minimum  of  qualifica- 
tions for  supervising  officers  as  well  as  teachers;  without  an  approx- 
imate equalization  of  local  taxation  for  school  purposes ;  without 
State  supervision  of  instruction  given  in  private  schools  and  in 
families,  we  shall  never  attain  anything  approaching  the  uniform 
excellence  of  the  work  done  in  Prussian  and  French  elementary 
schools. 

The  material  for  this  report  was  taken  from  many  sources.  The 
principal  references  are  to — 

1.  Nouveau  Code  de  I'lnstruction  primalre.    Pichard,  Paris,  1890. 

2.  ADDualre  de  I'lnstrnctlon  publiaue  et  des  Beaux-arts.    Delalain.  Paris,  1891. 

3.  Les  Traitements,  le  GlasBement,  I'Avancemeiit.    Martel,  Paris,  1890. 

4.  Kl^ments  de  Morale.    Joly,  Paris,  1887. 

6.  Statistique  de  t'EnseiKnemeat  primaire.    Ministdre  de  I'lnstruction  publique  et 
des  Beaux-arts,  Paris,  1889. 

6.  Quelques  Mots  sur  I'lnstruction  publique  en  France.    Br^al,  Paris,  1885. 

7.  Nouveaux  Programmes  des  Ecoles  primaires  avee  Divisions  mensuelles  et  Emplois 

du  Temps.    Paris,  1889. 

8.  Manuel  KiSnSral  de  I'lnstruction  primaire,  Journal  hebdomadaire.     Hachetto, 

Paris.  1891. 

9.  Bevue  international  de  I'EnselKnement    Colin,  Paris,  1891. 

10.  Le  Patriote.    Bourde,  Paris.  1888. 

11.  Travail  manuel.    Faivre,  Paris,  1887. 

12.  La  Le(;on  de  Dessin  dans  les  Ecoles  primaires  et  les  Classes  ^l^mentaires  de 

I'Enseiffnement  secondaire.    Leprat,  Paris,  1889. 


9 

Throughout  France  there  is  at  the  present  time  a  fermentation  of 
thought  in  matters  pertaining  to  public  education.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  in  cities  and  large  centei-s  of  population.  In  speaking  of 
the  expense  of  public  education  in  Paris,  Albert  Shaw  says : 

"  Probably  no  other  city  in  the  world  secures  etiually  advantacreous  results  from  the 
outlay  upon  schools.  Under  the  compulsory  education  act  the  attendance  of  children  in 
elementary  schools  has  actually  been  made  almost  universal.  But  Paris  does  not  stop 
with  elementary  education  in  reading,  writing  and  numbers.  It  maintains  a  marvelous 
systenrof  industrial  and  trade  schools  for  both  sexes,  in  which  almost  everythins  that 
pertains  to  the  production  and  traffic  of  Paris  is  tausht  and  encouraged.  American 
and  English  visitors  at  the  exposition  of  1889,  will  remember  the  remarkable  display  of 
the  Paris  industrial  schools,  especially  in  lines  of  decorative  manufacture  and  art.  It 
is  in  these  schools  that  Parisian  dressmakers,  milliners,  artiflcial-flower  makers,  furni- 
ture deslRuers,  house  decorators,  skilled  workers  in  metals,  and  handicraftsmen  in 
scores  of  lines  of  industry  are  educated  to  do  the  thinsrs  that  keep  Paris  prosperous 
and  rich.  It  is  public  money  wisely  spent  that  maintains  such  an  educational  system. 
I  need  not  refer  to  the  hisher  schools  of  science,  of  classics  and  literature,  of  enei- 
neerinc:  and  of  fine  art  All  the  flowers  of  civilization  are  encouraged  by  the  Paris 
municipality.  The  yearly  expenditure  of  a  moderate  but  regular  sum  for  the  promo- 
tion of  flne  arts,  by  means  of  the  purchase,  under  a  competitive  system,  of  designs  for 
public  statues,  of  pictures  and  mural  designs  for  schools  and  various  public  buildlngSt 
and  of  other  artistic  works,  not  only  educates  the  popular  taste  and  adds  to  the  adorn- 
ment and  beauty  of  the  city,  but  helps  to  keep  Paris  the  art  center  of  the  world,  and 
thus  to  maintain  what,  from  the  economic  point  of  view,  is  one  of  the  chief  and  most 
profitable  industries  of  Paris.  The  mercantile  schools  that  train  so  many  thousands 
of  women  as  well  as  men  In  book-keeping  and  penmanship  are  also  an  admirable 
investment." 

We  turn  now  to  the  special  consideration  of  what  has  been  called 
the  most  complete  national  system  ever  devised,  of  compulsory, 
gratuitous  and  secular  public  education. 

Introduction. 

History  teaches  us  that  after  great  wars,  and  especially  disastrous 
wars,  public  attention  turns  toward  education.  August  10,  1807, 
William  m,  King  of  Prussia,  said :  "  The  State  must  regain  in 
intellectual  force  what  it  has  lost  in  physical  force."  Men  like 
Humboldt,  Fichte  and  Stein  were  not  wanting,  and  the  result  was 
the  reorganization  of  national  education,  substantially  completed  in 
1813. 

The  story  of  France  f^pm  the  close  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
is  another  striking  illustration  of  this  fact.  For  more  than  half  a 
century  the  attention  of  the  French  people  had  been  directed  to 
the  defects  in  their  system  of  education.  Strong  men  had  devoted 
their  lives  to  remedy  these  defects,  and  yet  comparatively  little  was 
accomplished  imtil  France  had  been  conquered  by  Prussia  and  her 
very  existence  was  threatened. 

The  study  of  public  education  in  France  is  particularly  interest- 
ing to  Americans.  The  laws,  measures  and  methods,  adopted  by 
2 


16 

a  sister  republic  to  insure  the  requisite  training  for  good  and 
intelligrent  citizens,  are  not  looked  upon  so  suspiciously  as  those 
enforced  under  more  despotic  forms  of  government. 

The  documents  setting  forth  the  condition  of  public  education 
in  France  are  remarkable  for  precision,  clearness  and  brevity.  A 
study  of  the  new  code  of  primary  instruction  (Nouveau  Code  de 
V Instruction  Primaire  par  A.  E.  Fichard,  1890),  will  convince  the 
New  Yorker  that  our  code  should  be  thoroughly  revised.  It  is  a 
brave  man,  indeed,  who  has  courage  enough  to  venture  an  opinion 
on  school  matters  in  New  York.  Statutes  are  often  contradictory 
and  we  are  in  almost  as  bad  a  condition  as  the  Prussians  who  have 
no  code  of  public  instruction  at  all,  but  are  forced  to  depend  on  a 
few  general  laws  and  many  local  decrees.  The  French  system  of 
primary  instruction,  however,  is  so  clearly  set  forth  in  the  code 
that  it  is  very  easy  to  understand.  As  a  consequence  there  is  much 
less  contention  than  in  New  York,  and  a  great  saving  of  time  and 
money. 

The  object  of  this  report  is  to  state  as  clearly  and  as  concisely  as 
possible  just  what  the  French  system  of  primary  instruction  is,  and 
the  results  which  are  accomplished  under  this  system. 

As  in  my  report  on  Prussian  elementary  schools,  an  attempt  is 
made  to  state  clearly  and  concisely  the  minimum  of  work  required 
of  each  healthy  French  child,  and  the  provisions  by  which  the 
accomplishment  of  this  work  is  secured.  The  reader  follows  the 
would-be  teacher  through  the  Kindergarten  {ecole  maternelle),  the 
lower  and  upper  primary  schools,  the  normal  school,  and  the  final 
examinations. 

In  France  as  in  Prussia  primary  instruction  is  secured  by  the 
State  against  all  casualties.  It  is  uniform  and  invariable,  because 
the  primary  schools  represent  the  body  of  the  nation  and  are 
destined  to  nourish  and  to  strengthen  the  national  unity.  Compul 
sory  education  laws  necessitate  a  full  and  regular  attendance  of  the 
children  of  school  age.  Official  courses  of  study  fix  the  work  to  be 
accomplished  in  each  of  the  different  grades  of  schools.  Teaching 
is  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  profession  and  the  tenure  of  office  is 
secure.  The  State  is  most  generous  in  supporting  schools  in  poor 
and  thinly  populated  districts.  Trained  teachers  are  found  in  rural 
as  well  as  in  city  districts  and  the  school  year  is  at  least  forty  weeks 
in  length.  The  State  supervises  the  instruction  of  children  of  school 
age  in  private  schools  and  families,  insisting  on  definite  qualifica- 
tions for  private  instructors.  A  minimum  of  qualifications  is  estab- 
lished for  all  teachers  and  inspectors  of  schools.     Special  teachers 


u 

must  hold  the  certificate  of  capacity  for  their  particular  lines  of 
work. 

These  in  brief  are  the  principal  advantages  of  the  French  ele- 
mentary school  system.  New  York  elementary  schools  will  never 
compare  favorably  with  those  of  France  without  similar  provisions. 
Since  1871  the  standard  of  work  done  in  French  elementary  schools 
has  advanced  with  a  rapidity  which  is  without  a  parallel  in  the  his- 
tory of  education,  and  which  would  seem  entirely  incredible  to  those 
not  familiar  with  the  tremendous  sacrifices  the  Republic  has  made 
since  the  war. 

Careful  readers  of  the  courses  of  study  contained  in  this  report 
will  criticise  the  methods  pursued  in  certain  subjects.  As  a  whole, 
however,  these  courses  of  study  offer  many  interesting  and  valuable 
suggestions,  particularly  in  the  line  of  practical  work. 

FIRST  CHAPTER. 
POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION. 

France  is  divided  into  ninety  departments  (including  the  three 
departments  of  Algeria),  Each  department  is  subdivided  into 
arrondissements,  these  into  cantons,  and  the  cantons  into  communes. 

At  the  head  of  public  instruction  stands  the  minister  (Ministre  de 
V Instruction  publique  et  des  Beaux-arts).  Next  to  him  come  the 
director  of  higher  education,  the  director  of  secondary  education, 
and  the  director  of  primary  education.  These  oflScers  are  assisted 
by  inspectors  general,  assigned  by  the  minister  to  certain  depart- 
ments at  the  beginning  of  each  year. 

The  general  administration  is  materially  aided  by  the  higher 
council  {fionseil  superieur),  a  dignified  body  composed  of  the  leading 
educators  of  France,  which  assembles  twice  a  year  under  the  minister 
as  chairman.     The  minister  has  power  to  call  extra  sessions. 

The  members  of  the  higher  council  are  appointed  for  four  years. 
Nine  councilors,  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  republic,  and 
six  designated  by  the  minister  from  the  elected  members,  constitute 
the  permanent  section  of  the  council.  This  permanent  section 
meets  every  week  and  advises  concerning  courses  of  study  and  regu- 
lations ;  the  creation,  transformation  and  suppression  of  schools  and 
colleges ;  text-books  and  books  for  libraries  and  prizes  which  are  to 
be  rejected  by  public  schools ;  finally,  all  questions  of  instruction, 
administration  and  discipline  suggested  by  the  minister. 

The  whole  council  comprises  sixty  members,  more  than  thirty  of 
whom  are  professors  and  representatives  of  various  educational 
institutions,  chosen  by  their  colleagues.  Six,  connected  with 
primary  education,  are  elected  by  the  officers  of  primary  education. 


12 

Four,  connected  with  private  instruction,  are  appointed  by  the 
president  on  the  recc^mendation  of  the  minister.  Five  are  mem- 
bers of  the  institute  and  are  elected  by  the  institute.* 

The  hiffher  council  advises  concerning  courses  of  study,  methods 
of  instruction  and  modes  of  examination,  and  regulations,  already 
deliberated  on  in  the  permanent  section ;  regulations  relative  to  the 
supervision  of  public  schools ;  text-books,  books  for  general  read- 
ing and  prizes,  which  should  be  rejected  by  public  schools  as  contrary 
to  morals,  the  constitution  and  the  laws ;  rules  relating  to  foreigners 
demanding  an  authorization  to  teach  or  open  or  direct  a  school. 

The  higher  council  is  the  court  of  last  resort  in  the  case  of  judg- 
ments rendered  by  the  academic  councils  on  matters  of  contention 
and  discipline.  It  is  also  the  final  court  of  appeal  from  decisions  of 
department  councils  in  the  case  of  expulsion  of  teachers.  * 

A  glance  at  the  Annuaire  de  Vlnstruction  publique  for  1891  will 
establish  the  fact  that  the  most  distinguished  of  French  educators 
are  members  of  this  higher  council. 

Turning  now  from  the  general  administration  to  the  departments, 
we  find  these  grouped  into  seventeen  districts  (including  Algeria), 
called  academies.  The  Academie  de  Paris  includes  nine  depart- 
ments, that  of  Chambery  only  two ;  the  rest  range  from  three  to  eight. 

At  the  head  of  the  academie  stands  the  rector,  who  is  aided  by 
the  academic  council  {conseil  academique),  composed  of  secondary 
school  officials  of  the  several  departments,  members  elected  by  their 
colleagues,  and  six  members  appointed  by  the  minister. 

An  academy  inspector  (inspecteiir  d'academie)  is  placed  over 
each  department.  He  is  assisted  by  the  inspectors  of  primary 
instruction,  and  by  the  department  council  {conseil  departemental). 

The  department  council  is  a  council  of  primary  instruction,  under 
the  prefect  t  as  president  and  the  academy  inspector  as  vice- 
president.  The  members  are  fourteen  %  in  number,  including  four 
councilors  general  elected  by  their  colleagues ;  the  director  of  the 
normsJ  school  for  males,  the  directress  of  the  normal  school  for 
females ;  two  male  and  two  female  teachers  elected  by  the  public 
school  teachers  {titulaires)  of  the  department  from  among  the 
directors  or  directresses  of  schools  or  from  retired  male  or  female 
teachers ;  two  inspectors  of  primary  instruction  appointed  by  the 
minister.    In  cases  of  contention  and  discipline  touching  private 

•The  Jnstjhti  de  France  comprises  the -4cadt!jni6 /ranfoise;  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
lettres  ;  des  Sciences ;  des  Beaux-arts ;  des  Sciences  morales  et  politiques.  Each  of  the  five 
divisions  meets  once  a  week.  Of  the  five  members  of  the  Conseil  supth-ieur,  one  is  chosen 
from  each  of  the  five  divisions  at  a  general  session. 

t  The  prefect  {prefet)  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  a  department 

t  locreased  in  the  D^artement  de  la  Seine. 


13 

schools,  two  members,  one  from  the  clergy,  the  other  from  the  laity, 
are  elected  by  their  respective  colleagues. 

Members  of  the  department  council  are  elected  for  three  years. 
They  receive  no  salary  except  traveling  expenses  in  certain  cases. 
The  council  meets  four  times  a  year,  but  special  sessions  may  be 
called  by  the  prefect.  The  meetings  are  not  public.  A  majority  of 
the  members  constitute  a  quorum. 

The  department  council  supervises  the  carrying  out  of  courses  of 
study,  methods  of  instruction  and  rules,  prescribed  by  the  higher 
council,  including  the  arrangements  for  medical  supervision- 
deliberates  touching  the  reports  and  propositions  of  the  academy 
inspector ;  advises  concerning  reforms  deemed  necessary  in  the  plan 
of  instruction ;  discusses  annually  the  general  report  of  the  academy 
inspector  on  the  condition  and  needs  of  the  public  schools  and  on 
the  condition  of  private  schools ;  authorizes  several  communes  to 
unite  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  school ;  establishes 
schools  with  the  approval  of  the  minister,  and  determines  their 
number,  nature  and  location ;  may  delegate  to  one-third  of  its  mem- 
bers the  right  to  inspect  public  and  private  schools ;  may  authorize 
a  male  teacher  to  direct  a  mixed  school ;  advises  as  to  the  number 
of  pupils  normal  schools  may  receive ;  draws  up  rules  for  the  public 
ecoles  maternelles  ;  makes  the  list  of  teachers  eligible  to  full  instal- 
ment {titulaires) ;  draws  up  rules  for  upper  primary  schools ;  advises 
touching  the  removal  of  directors  and  teachers  of  upper  primary 
schools  and  schools  of  manual  training;  judges  opposition  made  to  the 
opening  of  private  schools ;  authorizes  private  schools  to  receive  chil- 
dren of  both  sexes ;  pronoimces  sentence  in  disciplinary  cases ;  advises 
touching  the  authorization  of  foreigners  to  teach  ;  fixes  the  number 
of  assistant  teachers  with  the  approbation  of  the  minister;  deter- 
mines the  number  of  pupils  and  teachers  in  private  boarding 
schools.  

SECOND  CHAPTER. 
ESTABLISHMENTS  FOR  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION. 
Primary  instruction  is  given : 

1.  In  Kindergarten  {Scales  maternelles)  and  infant  classes  {classes 
enfant  ines). 

The  ecoles  maternelles  are  Kindergarten  for  children  of  both  sexes 
from  2  to  6  years  of  age.* 

•These  motherly  scfiools  are  similar  to.  though  not  exactly  the  same  as  the  Qerman 
EioderK&rteD.  As  the  name  indicates,  they  are  planned  to  foUoTr  the  form  of  trainlt  g 
adopted  by  an  intelllsent  and  devoted  mother. 


14 

The  classes  enfantines,  annexed  to  a  lower  primary  school  or  to  a 
Kindergarten,  are  for  children  of  both  sexes  from  4  to  7  years  of 
age.  These  infant  classes  form  the  mean  between  the  Kindergarten 
and  the  primary  school. 

2.  In  the  lower  primary  schools  {ecoles  primaires  eUmentaires). 
The  lower  primary  schools  are  open  to  children  from  6  to  13 

years  of  age.  No  pupil  may  be  admitted  before  the  age  of  6 
years,  if  there  exist  in  the  community  at  a  convenient  distance 
a  public  ecole  maternelle ;  before  the  age  of  7*  years,  if  there  exist  a 
public  classe  enfantine. 

3.  In  the  upper  primary  schools  {ecoles  primaires  superieures), 
and  in  the  complementary  courses  (cours  complementaires)  annexed 
to  the  elementary  schools. 

The  upper  primary  schools  and  the  complementary  courses  receive 
only  those  children  who  have  gained  the  certificate  of  primary 
studies  {certificat  d'etudes  primaires,  page  54). 

4.  In  the  schools  of  manual  training  {ecoles  manuelles  d'apprentis- 
sa^e),  as  defined  by  the  law  of  December  11,  1880. 

The  schools  of  manual  training  are  designed  to  develop  technical 
aptitude  and  to  complete  from  a  special  point  of  view  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  elementary  schools.  They  receive  children  holding  the 
certificate  of  primary  studies  or  aged  at  least  13  years.  By  decree 
of  July  28,  1888,  no  child  under  12  may  be  admitted.  The  course 
of  study  covers  at  least  three  years. 

5.  In  classes  of  adults  and  apprentices.  These  classes  are  not 
permitted  to  receive  pupils  under  13  years  of  age.  They  are  never 
mixed  classes.  The  instruction  given  is  practical  with  special 
reference  to  the  trades. 

All  establishments  for  primary  instruction  may  be  either  public, 
that  is  founded  and  maintained  by  the  State,  the  department  and 
the  communes,  or  private,  that  is  founded  and  maintained  by  private 
individuals  or  associations. 

Teachers  and  directors  of  public  or  private  schools  must  be  of 
French  birth,  and  must  meet  the  conditions  of  age  and  capacity 
fixed  by  law.  Naturalized  citizens  may  be  authorized  by  the  min- 
ister with  the  advice  of  the  department  council  to  teach  in  private 
schools,  but  all  teachers  in  public  schools  must  be  of  French  birth. 

Instruction  is  given  by  males  in  boys'  schools;  by  females  in 
girls'  schools,  in  Kindergarten,  in  infant  classes,  and  in  mixed 
schools.  The  wife,  sister,  or  near  relative  of  the  director  of  a  boys' 
school  may  teach  as  an  assistant  in  said  school.     The  department 


16 

council  may  also  permit  a  male  to  direct  a  mixed  school  on  condition 
that  he  be  assisted  by  an  instructress  in  needlework. 

No  instructor  under  18,  and  no  instructress  under  17,  is  permitted 
to  teach  in  a  primary  school  of  any  degree.  The  director  of  a 
school  below  the  upper  primary  school  must  have  attained  the  age 
of  21  years.  The  director  of  an  upper  primary  school  or  of  a  school 
receiving  boarders  must  be  at  least  25  years  of  age. 

Article  17  of  the  law  of  October  30,  1886,  confines  all  grades  of 
public  instruction  to  the  laity.  At  the  same  time  certain  provisions 
were  made  for  the  gradual  execution  of  the  law.  In  boys'  schools, 
five  years  were  allowed  for  its  complete  accomplishment.  In  girls' 
schools  no  limit  was  set.  A  glance  at  the  statistics  will  show  what 
has  been  done  towai-d  the  secularization  of  public  instruction 
(page  16). 

All  French  public  elementary  schools  are  entirely  free.  Books, 
paper,  ink  and  school  supplies  generally  are  gratuitous.  More  than 
this,  the  children  of  indigent  parents  are  furnished  with  warm  food 
in  winter,  with  shoes  and  with  clothing.  In  Prussia,  public  primary 
instruction  is  now  practically  gratuitous,*  but  books  and  school 
supplies  are  furnished  only  to  the  children  of  the  poor,  who  are  also 
supplied  with  food  and  clothing  that  they  may  be  enabled  to  attend 
the  schools. 


THIKD  CHAPTEE. 
GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

Every  five  years  since  1877  the  ministry  of  public  instruction  has 
published  a  detailed  report  of  the  condition  of  primary  instruction 
in  France.  This  period  of  five  years  is  chosen  to  correspond  with 
the  enumeration  of  the  inhabitants,  which  takes  place  once  in  five 
years. 

The  latest  report,  published  in  1889  {Stafistique  de  VEnseignement 
primaire  —  Paris,  Imprimerie  nationale,  1889),   is  based  on  the 

*  "  Der  (  4  des  Oesetzes  eestattet  von  der  an  die  Spttza  Kestellten  KmndRatzUoheD 
Resel,  dass  die  ErhebunK  eines  Schulseldes  bei  Volksscbulen  fortan  Dicht  Btattflndet, 
zwei  AuRnahmen,  indem  er 

1.  dleZulilsaiKkeitder  ErbebuDff  von  Scbulseld  far  solcbe  Kinder,  welohe  Innerbalb 
des  Bezirks  der  von  ibnen  beeucbten  Scbule  nicht  einbeimincb  stnd, 

3.  Im  Uebrisen  aber  die  Erbebune  von  SchulKeld  nur  einstweilen  coch  Keetattet  and 
zwar  nur  insoweit.  als  das  seKenw&rtiR  beetebende  SchulKeld  durcb  den  StaatsbeitraK 
nioht.  Kedeckt  wird."—  AuBftlbrunKsanwelauns  zum  Gesetz  vom  14.  Junl  1888.  flee  aI«o 
Article  II  of  Law  of  March  31, 1889  and  subsequent  decrees. 


16 

census  of  May  30,  1886,  and  shows  great  progress  since  1882,  the 
date  of  the  previous  report.  The  statistics  contained  in  this  report 
are  the  latest  available.  A  report  based  on  the  census  of  1891  will 
not  appear  m  all  probability  before  1893. 

In  obedience  to  the  law  of  August  9,  1879,  seven  normal  schools 
for  males  and  forty  for  females  were  established  in  France  between 
1882  and  1887.*  At  the  close  of  1887  there  were  172  normal  schools, 
of  which  90  were  for  males  and  82  for  females. 

The  law  of  October  30,  1886,  has  caused  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment in  the  upper  primary  schools.  In  1887  these  schools  were  302 
in  number.  Including  the  431  cours  complementaires,  upper  prim- 
ary instruction  embraced  1,600  teachers  and  38,000  pupils. 

At  the  present  time  public  opinion  directs  that  instruction  given 
in  these  upper  primary  schools  be  in  the  line  of  professional  and 
industrial  training.  Proper  advantages  must  be  provided  for  the 
training  of  good  workmen  in  agriculture,  industry  and  commerce. 
The  proof  of  this  is  found  in  the  courses  of  study  of  these  schools 
as  well  as  in  the  establishment  of  the  three  great  national  technical 
schools  of -^rmen^^eres,  Vierzon  and  Voiron.f 

In  1882,  there  were  in  France  (not  including  Algeria),  75,635 
upper  and  lower  primary  schools ;  in  1887,  there  were  80,209,  an 
increase  of  3,711  public  and  of  863  private  schools. 

The  number  of  confessional  public  primary  schools  was  reduced 
through  the  new  law  from  11,265  to  9,097.  The  number  of  public 
primary  schools  under  lay  direction  increased  from  51,732  to  57,611. 
On  the  other  hand  the  number  of  confessional  private  schools 
increased  within  this  period  from  8,160  to  9,565,  while  the  private 
schools  under  lay  direction  decreased  from  4,478  to  3,936. 

In  1882,  France  had  5,052  motherly  schools  {ecoles  maternelles), 
which  number  was  increased  to  5,882  in  1887.  These  schools 
received  644,384  pupils  in  1882,  and  741,224  in  1887. 

*  A  partial  parallel  is  found  in  Prussia  where  twenty-four  new  normal  schools  were 
established  between  1870  and  1876. 

t  By  law  of  December  11,  1880,  and  by  decree  of  March  17.  1888,  the  tcoles  manuelles 
d'apprentissagc  and  the  upper  primary  schools  with  technical  courses  were  placed 
under  the  double  authority  of  the  minister  of  public  Instruction  and  the  minister  of 
commerce  and  industry.  Up  to  November,  1888,  only  the  three  great  technical  schools 
referred  to  above  and  a  few  special  technical  schools  such  as  those  at  Boulogne- sur-Mer, 
Rouen.  Havre,  Reims,  Valre'as,  Aire-sur-Adour  and  Bar- stir- Seine  had  come  under  this 
double  ra'gime.  The  statistics  here  given  include  only  the  upper  primary  schools 
under  the  sole  authority  of  the  minister  of  public  Instruction. 


17 

The  total  number  of  primary  teachers  in  1882,  induding  the  Scales 
mater nelles,  was  132,536.  In  1887  this  total  was  increased  to  145,668, 
of  whom  103,008  were  public  and  42,660  private  teachers. 

The  percentage  of  lay  teachers  in  public  primary  schools  was 
seventy -seven  in  1882  and  eighty-four  in  1887. 

The  total  number  of  primary  pupils  registered  in  1882,  not 
including  the  ecoles  mater  nelles,  was  5,341,211.  In  1887,  this  total 
was  5,526,365.  The  public  schools  under  lay  direction  gained 
294,786,  while  the  confessional  public  schools  lost  209,474.  At  the 
same  time  the  private  secular  schools  lost  43,537,  and  the  private 
confessional  schools  gained  143,379. 

But  the  ministry  of  public  instruction  is  not  satisfied  with  figures 
based  on  registration  alone.  In  order  to  substantiate  these  figures, 
the  actual  attendance  in  the  public  primary  schools  throughout 
the  Republic  was  taken  three  times  within  this  period  of  five  years, 
on  a  fixed  day.  The  results  on  December  4,  1886,  and  June  4, 1887, 
showed  an  actual  attendance  of  91  per  cent  and  88  per  cent  respect- 
ively, of  the  total  registration  for  December  and  June. 

The  law  of  June  1,  1878,  touching  the  Caisse  des  Scales,  has 
increased  very  materially  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  school 
property.  The  hundred  five  and  one-half  millions  of  dollars  devoted 
between  1878  and  1888  to  the  construction,  repair  and  equipment 
of  school  buildings,  represents  a  sacrifice  for  which  posterity  will 
be  grateful.  Indeed,  the  large  number  of  substantial  public  school 
buildings  now  furnishes  a  material  proof  of  the  definite  establish- 
ment of  national  instruction,  which  had  been  so  long  in  a  precarious 
condition. 

In  1882  the  current  expenditures  for  public  primeiry  instruction 
were  $26,757,888.  In  1887  the  amount  was  increased  to  $34,580,103.* 
Of  this  total,  $7,600,000  were  expended  voluntarily  by  the  com- 
munes for  the  development  and  amelioration  of  school  facilities. 

The  following  table  shows  the  current  expenditures  for  public 
primary  instruction  from  1882  to  1888 : 

18W $26,767,888 

1883 27.001,811 

1884 28.330. MS 

1886* 34,120,974 

1886* 34.051,229 

1887* 34,580.103 


*IncludiQS  contributions  bycommuneB  for  sundry  expenditures  of  whicti  no  record 
was  kept  pr^yiom  (o  1886.   This  f&ot  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  makioK  comparisons. 

3 


18. 

Of  the  $34,580,103  expended  in  1887,  the  communes  paid  40.6 
per  cent,  the  departments  10,6  per  cent,  and  the  State  48.8  per 
cent. 

Deducting"  the  communal  expenses  {depenses  diver ses  communcdes) 
of  which  no  records  were  kept  prior  to  1885,  the  percentages  from 
the  three  sources  for  1887  were  28.1,  12.4  and  59.5  respectively. 

The  relative  increase  in  State  aid  since  1855  is  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


Com- 
munes. 

Depart- 
ments. 

State. 

1865 

64.8 
68.1 
67.4 
20.6 
28.1 

18.8 
16.6 
18.0 
18.3 
12.4 

16  9 

1867 

16  3 

1877 

24.6 

1882 

66.2 

1887 

69.6 

The  facts  which  merit  attention  are  the  great  changes  in  1882, 
caused  by  the  law  making  primary  instruction  gratuitous  and  by 
other  new  laws,  and  the  increase  in  the  effort  made  by  the  com- 
munes in  1887. 

The  current  expenditure  of  $34,580,103  represented  an  outlay  of 
eighty-nine  cents  per  caput  of  population  *  in  1887,  or  eight  doUars 
and  three  cents  for  each  pupil  enrolled  in  December  in  the  public 
schools,  including  the  ecoles  maternelles  (4,306,100). 

It  is  not  to  be  overlooked,  however,  that  the  annual  current 
expenditures  do  not  include  the  $105,517,290  devoted  by  the  Caisse 
des  ecoles  between  June  1,  1878,  and  December  31,  1887,  to  the  con- 
struction, repair  and  equipment  of  primary  schools,  or  the  loan  of 
$1,554,313  granted  the  departments  by  the  State  for  the  construction 
of  normal  schools,  f 

Of  the  $105,517,290  referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  58.41 
per  cent  was  borne  by  the  communes,  2.62  per  cent  by  the  depart- 


•  "  Population  de  la  France,  38,218,903  et  population  europienne  et  israilite  de  VAlgirie 
464,767  =  38,683,670."— .Annwatre  statistique  de  la  D'ance,  1888. 

t  "  Bulerjuin  1878  au  31  d^cembre  1887,  la  Caisse  des  ecoles  a  dispense  pour  constructions, 
ri^parations,  ameublements  une  somme  {d^pense  effectuee  ou  engaqM  de  627  millions  et  demi 
I  sa7is  compter  Ips  engagements  pris  par  VEtat  envers  les  de'pariements  pour  constructions 
d'^coles  nwmales)  "    Statistique  de  renseignementprim,aire. 


19 

ments  and  38.97  per  cent  by  the  State;  $91,415,694  were  expended 
between  June  1,  1878,  and  June  20,  1885,  and  $14,101,596  between 
June  28,  1885,  and  December  31,  1887. 

Under  the  law,  communes  with  no  available  funds  to  provide  and 
maintain  suitable  schools  must  secure  a  loan  from  the  State  payable 
in  from  thirty  to  forty  years.  Inasmuch  as  several  generations  are 
to  profit  by  these  extraordinary  expenses,  they  are  not  included  in 
the  annual  current  expenditures.  This  fact  must  not  be  forgotten 
in  estimating  the  total  cost  of  public  primary  instruction. 

If  we  divide  into  ten  equal  portions  the  extraordinary  expenses 
for  construction,  repair  and  equipment  between  1878  and  1888,  and 
add  one  portion  or  $10,707,160  to  the  current  expenditure  for  1887, 
the  grand  total  for  public  primary  education  in  1887  is  $45,287,263, 
which  represents  an  outlay  of  one  dollar  and  seventeen  cents  per 
caput  of  population.* 

In  every  group  of  1,000  primary  schools,  832  are  public  and  168 
are  private.  Assuming  that  the  costs  for  each  pupil  in  public  and 
private  schools  are  equal,  the  expenditures  for  private  instruction 
were  about  $10,000,000  in  1887.  On  this  basis,  public  and  private 
primary  instruction  cost  $55,887,263  in  1887,  which  represents  an 
outlay  of  one  dollar  and  forty-four  cents  per  caput  of  population. 


FOUKTH  CHAPTEE. 
POPULATION  OF  FRANCE. 

{Not  including  Algeria.) 

The  census  of  December,  1881,  gave  France  a  domiciled  popula- 
tion of  37,672,048,  and  a  present  population  of  37,405,290.  The 
corresponding  figures  for  the  census  of  May,  30, 1886,  were  38,218,903 
and  37,930,759  respectively. f 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  rate  of  increase  is  less  than  that  of  most 
Eiu*opean  countries. 

•  EiKhty-six  per  cent  of  the  total  public  current  expenditure  in  1887  was  for  primary 
instruction.  Secondary  and  blRher  instruction  are  now  making  rapid  prosress  in 
France.  More  than  $23.ooo,ooo  have  been  expended  in  buildiuKs.  repairs  and  equipments 
since  1877,  the  State  bearioK  about  half  the  burden. 

t  The  domiciled  population  {population,  ck»nicilie'e)  is  the  lesal  population.  The  present 
population  (population  prenente)  is  made  up  of  those  who  were  actually  present  in  the 
various  communes  OQ  the  night  of  Maf  3»-90, 1886. 


Everywhere  the  population  now  tends  to  group  itself  into  the 
cities  and  large  villages.  In  France  the  slow  rate  of  increase  in 
the  population  complicates  this  situation.  The  rural  districts  are 
depopulated,  and  there  is  difficulty  in  securing  laborers  to  till  the 

soil. 

School  Population. 

The  school  population  is  divided  into  four  groups  according  to 
age,  as  shown  in  the  following  table : 


f 
From  ato  e -! 


From  6  to  11 


From  11  to  18 


From  18  to  16 


Summary 


BOYS  AND  GIRLS. 


Enumerated 

Resristered  at  a  primary  school  or  eeole 
maternelle 

Enu  merated 

Registered  at  a  primary  school 

Enumerated 

Registered  at  a  primary  school 

Enumerated 

Registered  at  a  primary  school 

Total  of  children  from  2  to  16 

Registered  at  an  establishment  of  primary 
instruction 


1881-1882. 

1886-1887. 

2,794,898 

2,818,007 

1,101,928 

1,124,618 

3,334,337 

3,396,646 

3,439,369 

8,552,238 

1,262,012 

1,888,866 

942,924 

1,112,850 

1,919,346 

1,947,166 

501,374 

477,883 

9,300,093 

9,494,683 

6,986,596 

6,267,689 

As  groups  two  and  three  include  the  compulsory  education  period 
of  seven  years,  from  6  to  13  years  of  age,  they  merit  a  more  careful 
examination. 

The  population  from  6  to  13  years  of  age  is  divided  as  follows : 


1881-1882. 


1886-1887. 


Boys 

Girls 

Total 


2,316,693 
2,269,766 


2,375,457 
2,354,054 


4,686,349 


4,729,511 


As  in  almost  all  European  countries,  the  number  of  boys  in 
France  slightly  exceeds  that  of  the  ■  girls  At  birth  there  are  about 
105  boys  for  100  girls,  but  during  the  first  years  of  life  the  mortality 
of  boys  i&  greater  than  that  of  girls. 


21 


The  following  table  from  the  last  Stntistique  de  V Enseignemeni 
primaire  will  be  of  interest  in  showing  the  eflfoctiveness  of  the  com- 
pulsory education  laws : 


1881-188X 


188S-1887. 


Number  of  children  from  6  to  13 


Number  of  children  from,  6  to  13  registered  as  receiving 
instruction  : 


In  public  and  private  Scales  matemelles 

In  public  primary  schools 

In  private  schools 

In  secondary  schools 

At  home  (Law  of  March  28,  1882) 


Total  rearlstration. 


4.686,849 


86,170 

8,669,609 

737,614 

43,397 


4,426,690 


4,739,611 


113,796 

8,701.640 

849,763 

77,976 

9.906 


4,762.968 


A  comparison  of  the  census  for  1886,  with  the  reported  registra- 
tion, shows  an  attendance  of  23,457  in  excess  of  the  total  number  of 
children.  This  is  attributed  by  the  ministry  to  lack  of  precision  in 
ascertaining  and  recording  the  ages  of  the  children  and  to  the  redu- 
plication of  names.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  number  registered  is  always 
greater  than  the  number  actually  in  attendance  during  the  year. 

The  number  of  children  actually  in  attendance  December  4,  1886, 
and  June  4,  1887,  was  carefully  ascertained  by  direction  of  the  min- 
istry in  all  the  public  primary  schools.  The  former  date  is  in  the 
winter  term,  which  is  the  period  of  full  attendance ;  the  latter,  in 
the  summer  term,  when,  through  agricultural  duties,  the  attendance 
is  somewhat  smaller  and  more  irregular.  The  results  attained  in 
this  way  differ  very  little  from  the  general  report.  We  are  right, 
therefore,  in  concluding  that  the  reported  condition  ol  the  attend- 
ance on  public  schools  merits  aU  confidence.  If  we  place  the  same 
value  on  the  reported  condition  of  the  attendance  on  private 
schools,  we  may  state  that  altogether,  excluding  the  ecoles  mater- 
nelles,  91  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  children  registered 
in  December,  1886.  were  present  December  4,  1886,  and  that  88 
per  cent  of  the  total  number  registered  in  June,  1887,  were 
present  June  4,  1887. 

The  difference  between  the  number  registered  and  the  numl^er 
actually  present  in  the  upper  primary  schools  is  less  than  that  in 
the  lower  primary  schools,  because  the  upper  primary  schools  are 
situated  in  cities,  where  the  general  attendance  is  more  regular  than 


22 


in  the  country,  and  because,  as  a  rule,  the  pupils  are  more  indus- 
trious than  those  of  the  lower  primary  schools.  The  upper  primary 
schools,  for  example,  registered  27,475  pupils  in  December,  1886,  of 
which  number  26,152  were  present  December  4,  1886 ;  25,276  pupils 
in  June,  1887,  of  which  number  23,749  were  present  June  4,  1887. 

The  difference,  on  the  contrary,  between  registration  and  actual 
attendance  in  the  Kindergarten  {ecoles  maternelles)  is  greater.  In 
December,  1886,  382,168  were  registered,  and  305,215  were  present 
December  4.  In  June,  1887,  410,800  were  registered  and  338,280 
were  present  June  4,  It  is  to  be  added,  however,  that  attendance 
on  ecoles  maternelles  is  not  compulsory,  and  that  it  is  greatly 
reduced  in  bad  weather. 

DENSITY  OF  POPULATION. 

In  order  to  learn  the  needs  of  the  various  departments  as  regards 
school  accommodations,  we  must  study  the  statistics  relative  to  the 
distribution  of  the  inhabitants.  In  populous  districts  fewer  schools 
are  needed.  The  school  must  be  at  a  convenient  distance  or  pupils 
will  either  attend  with  difficulty  or  will  not  attend  at  all. 

It  is  much  cheaper  relatively  to  provide  school  accommodations 
in  populous  districts  than  where  the  inhabitants  are  scattered  over 
a  large  territory. 

The  area  of  France  is  528,400  square  kilometers.  The  average 
number  of  children  from  6  to  13  years  of  age  is  nine  per  square 
kilometer.  But  in  the  different  departments  the  school  population 
varies  greatly.  The  department  of  the  Seine  counts  581  children  of 
this  category,  while  other  departments  average  but  from  six  to  two 
per  square  kilometer. 

There  were  36,121  communes  in  France  in  1886-1887.  The  fol 
lowing  table  shows  the  population  of  these  communes  as  compared 
with  1881-1882: 


1881-1882. 


1886-1887. 


From  13  to  400  inhabitants 
From  401  to  soo  inhabitants 
From  501  to  l.ooo  Inhabitants 
From  1,001  to  B.ooo  Inhabitants 
From  6,001  to  lo,ooo  Inhabitants 
From  10,001  to  20,000  inhabitants 

Above  30,000  Inhabitants 

Total ... 


13,271 

3,699 

10,6.33 

8,069 

312 

132 

91 


13,662 

3,619 

10,362 

8,016 

328 

134 

100 


36,097 


36,121 


23 


FIFTH  CHAPTEK. 

KUMBER    AND    DIVISION    OF    INSTITUTIONS    FOR    PRIMARY 

INSTRUCTION. 

The  several  establishments  of  primary  instruction  are  divided  as 

follows: 

1.  EcoLES  Maternelles. 


1881-1883. 

1886-1887. 

Public 

3,161 
1,891 

3.U7 

Private 

3,486 

Total 

6.063 

6,883 

2.  Lower  and  Uppeb  Primary  Schools. 

1881-1883. 

1886-1887. 

Public 

63,997 
13.638 

66,708 

Private 

13,601 

Total .... 

76,635 

80,309 

a. 

Division 

of  pvblic 

primary 

schools. 

1881-1883. 

1886-1887. 

Boys'  schools 

34,371 
31.604 
17.133 

3&,131 

Oirls'  schools 

33,334 

Mixed  schools 

18,368 

Total 

63.997 

60.706 

b. 

Division 

of  private 

primary 

schools. 

1881-188Z 

1886-1887. 

Boys*  schools 

3,196 

9,796 

647 

3,631 

Qiris'  schools 

10,396 

Mixed  schools  ., - 

744 

Total 

13,638 

13.601 

24 


CONDITION  OF  SCHOOLS. 
In  1887,  53,166  school  buildings  belonged  to  the  communes.* 
The  number  of  buildings  rented  or  loaned  diminished  from  15,625 
in  1882  to  13,344  in  1887.  The  condition  of  school  buildings 
improved  greatly  during  this  period.  There  were  35,547  buildings 
in  perfect  repair  in  1887  as  against  29,355  in  1882.  In  1887,  50,344 
schools  were  provided  with  a  garden  (as  against  42,586  in  1882) ;  5,592 
with  a  gymnasium  and  466  with  a  workshop  for  manual  training. 

CLASSES. 

The  classes  in  the  several  establishments  of  primary  instruction 

are  as  follows : 

1.  EcoLES  Maternelles. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  the  exact  number  of  classes  in  these 
Kindergarten  inasmuch  as  the  division  into  two  classes  is  not  strictly 
followed  in  all.  But  as  there  are  3,447  directresses  and  2,270  assist- 
ants in  the  3,447  public  ecoles  maternelles,  and  2,435  directresses  and 
701  assistants  in  the  2,435  private  ecoles  maternelles,  it  is  certain 
that  a  large  number  of  these  institutions  have  in  reality  two  classes. 

2.  LowEB  AND  Upper  Primary  Schools. 
The  following  table  shows  the  division  of  classes  in  the  public 
and  private  primary  schools : 


1881-1882. 

1886-1887. 

Schools  with  one  class 

63,296 

13,073 

4,663 

2,063 

1,120 

716 

822 

493 

64,616 

Schools  with  two  classes 

14,969 

Schools  with  three  classee 

6,024 

Schools  with  four  classes 

2,410 

Schools  with  five  classes 

1,276 

Schools  with  six  classes 

888 

Schools  With  seven  classes 

496 

Schools  with  eight  or  more  classes 

647 

Total 

76,686 

80,209 

In  1887  there  were  96,057  classes  in  the  public  primary  schools 
under  the  charge  of  as  many  teachers. 

*For  purposes  of  comparison,  the  method  of  calculation  used  in  1882  is  followed. 
Each  aroupe.  scolaire  is  counted  as  two  schools.  If  counted  as  one  school,  there  were 
60,618  schools  in  1887,  of  which  number  47.174  belonged  to  the  communes  and  18,344  were 
loaned  or  rented. 


25 


These  classes  were  divided  as  follows  : 


1881-1883. 

1886-1887. 

Boyb'  classes  

87,416 
83,009 
17,33S 

41,408 

Olrls'  clashes  

34,034 

Mixed  classes 

18,025 

Total 

86,TM 

06,067 

In  84.7  per  cent  of  the  classes,  the  number  of  pupils  did  not 
exceed  fifty ;  in  9,6  per  cent,  the  number  was  between  fifty -one  and 
sixty ;  in  3.7  per  cent,  between  sixty-one  and  seventy ;  in  1.3  per 
cent,  between  seventy-one  and  eig^hty ;  above  eighty,  in  0.7  per  cent 
of  the  classes. 

Like  New  York,  France  labors  under  a  great  disadvantage  owing 
to  the  very  unequal  distribution  of  the  inhabitants. 

In  7,117  ungraded  schools,  the  total  number  of  pupils  in  1887 
averaged  14.7  for  each  school. 

In  969  schools  with  two  classes,  there  were  less  than  50 
pupils. 

In  109  schools  with  four  classes,  there  were  less  than  120 
pupils. 

In  118  schools  with  five  classes,  there  were  less  than  175 
pupils. 

In  54  schools  with  six  classes,  there  were  less  than  210  pupils. 

In  42  schools  with  seven  or  more  classes,  the  average  number  of 
pupils  per  class  was  less  than  35. 

In  1887,  there  were  34,471  classes  in  the  private  primary  schools. 
These  classes  were  divided  as  follows : 

Boys' classes 7,690 

Girls'  classes 26,761 

Mixed  classes 1,130 

Total 84,471 

Classes  not  exceedlnR  fifty  pupils 31,625 

Classes  with  from  flfty-one  to  sixty  pupils 2,009 

Classes  with  from  slxty-oue  to  seyenty  pupils 676 

Classes  with  from  seventy-one  to  eighty  pupils 189 

Classes  with  more  than  eighty  pupils 73 

Total 84,471 

4 


TEACHEBS. 
The  teachers  in  the  several  institutioiis  of  primary  instruction  are 
classed  as  follows : 

1.  EOOLES  MaTEBNELLES. 


AssistantB. 

TotaL 

Pabllc  schools 

lan-UBa 

law-iMT 

lan-isa 

188«-188T 

s.in 

3.44T 

i.sn 

3,436 

1,838 

s.arro 

68S 

701 

«.9vr 

Frtrato  sehools j 

6,nT 

3.6T4 

3.136 

By  this  table  we  see  that  there  were  7,571  teachers  in  these  Kin- 
dergarten in  1882,  and  8,853  in  1887. 

2.  LOWEB  AND  IJPPEB  PbIMABY  SCHOOLS. 


MMle. 

Female. 

TotaL 

1881-1889 

58,137 

63,isa 

M.838 
13.683 

U4.96B 
136,816 

188S-18flrr 

These  teachers  were  divided  between  public  and  private  schools 
in  the  following  ratio : 


1881-1883. 

1886-1887. 

Pabllc  schools 

88.336 
36.745 

97,391 
39,614 

Ptivate  sehools » 

Total 

134.986 

136.815 

RATIO  BETWEEN  TEACHEBS  AND  PUPIU3. 
The  reports  of  the  number  of  public  school  teachers  as  compared 
with  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  show  that  in  1887  there 
was  one  male  teacher  for  forty-three  boys,  and  one  female  teacher 
for  fifty-five  girls.  In  1882,  these  ratios  were  one  to  forty -six  and  one 
to  siity-one  resi)ectively.  In  Prussia,  in  1886,  the  average  number 
of  pupils  under  one  teacher  was  a  fraction  over  seventy-four ;  in 
New  York,  forty -three  (on  average  daily  attendance  26). 


27 


SIXTH  CHAPTER. 
STATISTICS  RELATING  TO  THE  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS. 

Males, 

In  1882  there  were  eighty -three  normal  schools  for  males.  New 
schools  were  established  in  seven  departments  between  1882  and 
1887. 

In  1887  the  ninety  normal  schools  for  males  had  489  directors, 
stewards  (economes)  and  assistants  {niaUres  adjoints),  606  professors 
(exiernes),  and  5,443  students. 

In  1882  the  eighty-three  normal  schools  for  males  had  4,767 
students.    In  five  years,  therefore,  the  increase  was  14.2  per  cent. 

Between  1882  and  1887,  8,054  students  were  graduated  from  these 
normal  schools  for  males.  Between  1877  and  1882,  6,105  students 
were  graduated  therefrom.  The  increase  in  the  lat«r  period,  there- 
fore, was  31.9  per  cent. 

Females. 

In  1882  there  were  forty -one  normal  schools  for  females.  Forty 
new  schools  were  established  between  1882  and  1887. 

In  1887  the  eighty-one  normal  schools  for  females  counted  474 
directresses,  stewards  and  assistants  (maitresses  adjointea),  415 
professors  {externes)  and  3,544  students. 

In  1882  the  forty-one  normal  schools  for  females  counted  only 
2,002  students.  In  five  years,  therefore,  the  rate  of  increase  was  77 
per  cent. 

Between  1882  and  1887,  4,285  students  were  graduated  from  the 
normal  schools  for  females.  Between  1877  and  1882,  1,310  students 
were  graduated  from  these  schools.  The  rate  of  increase  in  the 
later  period,  therefore,  was  227  per  cent. 

FACILITIES  FOR  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING. 
The  object  of  the  law  of  1879  was  nearly  accomplished  in  1887, 
when  all  departments  of  France  and  Algeria,  except  Or  an,  had  a 
normal  school  for  males,  and  all  except  Alpes-Maritlmes,  Aveyron, 
Belfort,  Creuse,  Eure*  Indre,  Tarn,  Var  and  Constant ine,  a  normal 
school  for  females.  Everywhere  in  a  large  measure  and  exclusively 
in  some  departments,  recruits  for  the  teaching  force  are  now  normal 
graduates,  and  normal  school  facilities  are  adequate  to  supply  the 
demand  for  teachers. 

*  A  normal  school  for  females  was  finished  in  this  department  in  October,  1888. 


Under  the  new  law  the  current  expenses  of  the  normal  schools 
have  increased  from  year  to  year.  In  1882  the  ordinary  current 
expenses  for  normal  schools  amounted  to  $1,378,385.  In  1887  the 
amount  was  increased  to  $1,880,095. 

TEACHERS'  EXAMINATIONS. 

A  study  of  the  official  reports  of  the  examination  of  candidates 
for  the  brevet  eUmentaire  and  the  brevet  superieur  from  1882  to  1887 
shows  that  from  25.6  per  cent  to  45.3  per  cent  of  the  males  were 
successful,  and  that  from  36.3  per  cent  to  56.7  per  cent  of  the  females 
were  successful. 

In  1882,  72.9  per  cent  of  all  public  primary^  teachers  held  State 
certificates.  In  1887  the  percentag'e  was  increased  to  90.8.  In 
1887,  79.3  per  cent  of  all  private  primary  teachers  held  State  certifi- 
cates ;  85.9  per  cent  of  all  teachers  in  public  ecoles  maternelles  and 
71.6  per  cent  of  all  teachers  in  private  Scoles  maternelles. 


SEVENTH  CHAPTEK. 
STATISTICS  RELATING  TO  INSPECTION. 

Primary  instruction  in  France  is  under  the  minister  of  public 
instruction. 

The  direction  of  primary  instruction  is  divided  between  six 
departments.  Six  inspectors  general  are  charged  with  the  inspec- 
tion of  primary  instruction  in  the  seventeen  academies  (including 
Algeria).  Three  other  general  inspectors  supervise,  respectively, 
the  management  of  the  normal  and  technical  schools;  the  manual 
training  in  the  normal  and  upper  primary  schools ;  tlie  instruction 
in  gymnastics  and  military  exercises  in  the  various  establishments 
of  primary  instruction. 

The  inspection  of  instruction  in  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  and 
the  inspection  of  instruction  in  modem  languages  in  the  normal 
and  upper  primary  schools  are  under  special  inspectors.  The 
inspection  of  drawing  in  normal  and  upper  primary  schools  is  also 
confided  to  special  inspectors  of  drawing. 

There  are  four  inspectresses  general  of  the  ecoles  maternelles. 

In  each  department,  the  sendee  of  primary  instruction  is  directed 
by  an  academy  inspector.  A  council,  called  the  department  coun- 
cil, presided  over  by  the  prefect,  gives  opinions,  takes  evidence  and 
renders  decisions  on  questions  within  its  province  (page  12). 


29 

The  primary  inspectors,  named  by  the  minister,  are  subordinate 
to  the  rector  and  under  the  immediate  orders  of  the  academy 
inspector. 

The  primary  inspectors  correspond  to  school  commissioners  in 
New  York.  For  details  regarding  the  qualifications  of  these  officers 
see  page  39. 

The  number  of  primary  inspectors  for  each  year  from  1882  to 
1887  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

188a 4S6 

1883 478 

1884 478 

1886 474 

1886 474 

1887 4M 

The  area  of  France  being  528,400  square  kilometere,  there  was 
one  primary  inspector  for  each  1,159  square  kilometers  in  1887. 

Inspection  districts  vary  greatly  in  size  and  in  number  of  schools. 
The  mean  is  one  inspector  for  146  public  primary  schools,  for  211 
classes  and  213  teachers  of  these  schools,  or  for  189  schools  of 
every  kind  (including  ecoles  maternelles),  for  286  classes  and  319 
teachers. 

The  largest  districts  are  Marseilles  with  860  and  579  classes; 
Lille  1st  aud  Lille  2d,  Douai  and  Valenciennes,  with  829,  701,  506 
and  644  respectively ;  Rouen  1st,  with  634 ;  Courhevoie-Neuilly  and 
the  Uh  and  bth  arrondissements  of  Paris,  with  630  and  532 
respectively. 

The  smallest  districts  are  those  of  Castellane,  Sisteron  and 
Loudun,  with  120,  127  and  118  respectively. 

The  mean  of  146  public  schools  is  too  high.  Recommendations 
have  been  made  in  the  latest  reports  to  reduce  to  100  in  order  that 
the  inspector  may  visit  each  school  under  his  charge  several  times 
a  year. 

The  attitude  of  the  administration,  however,  is  far  from  satisfac- 
tory in  this  respect.  Eighteen  inspectorships  were  discontinued  in 
1887,  and  twenty-seven  have  been  suppressed  for  financial  reasons 
since  1887. 

Cost  of  Primaby  Inspectigx. 

The  cost  of  inspection  is  paid  by  the  State.  It  amounted  in  1882 
to  $429,271,  and  in  1887  to  $428,935  (including  Algeria). 

There  is  general  complaint  at  the  false  economy  which  has 
checked  the  growth  of  this  most  necessary  feature  of  public  school 
work. 


30 


EIGHTH  CHAPTER. 
STATISTICS  BELATING  TO  AUXILIABY  INSTITUTIONS. 

Classes  of  Adults. 

The  number  of  these  classes  for  men  and  women  was  28,835  in 
1881-1882,  and  only  9,053  in  1886-1887.  The  decrease  of  19,782  was 
due  to  the  rigorous  conditions  imposed  by  the  State  as  regards 
State  aid,  and  also  to  the  rapid  development  of  primary  instruction. 

In  1881-1882,  596,322  persons  frequented  these  classes;  in  1886- 
1887,  the  number  was  reduced  to  184,612. 

By  decree  of  April  4, 1882,  these  classes  were  divided  into  those 
in  elementary  work  for  the  illiterate,  and  into  those  in  special  courses 
for  the  others  in  attendance. 

In  1886-1887  there  were  1,579  classes  doing  elementary  work,  and 
7,474  special  classes. 

With  the  development  of  primary  instruction,  illiteracy  decreases 

rapidly,  and  classes  for  the  illiterate  become  unnecessary.    These 

statistics  are  interesting,  however,  as  an  additional  evidence  of  the 

tremendous  sacrifices  France  is  making  for  the  education  of  her 

people.    ' 

School  Libraries. 

The  following  table  shows  the  condition  of  the  school  libraries 
from  1882  to  1887: 


1883 
1883 
1884 
1886 
1886 
1887 


Number  of 
libraries. 


28,2&1 
28,846 
30.920 
32,302 
33,880 
34,992 


Number  of 
volumes. 


2,894,440 
3,160,823 
3,226,896 
3,862,641 
4,169,208 
4,410,242 


Number  of 
loans. 


3,082,486 
3,586,227 
4,167,786 
4.866,676 
6,421,634 


In  many  localities,  thanks  to  the  choice  of  books,  the  taste  of  the 
inhabitants,  or  the  zeal  of  the  teacher,  the  library  is  in  general 
demand.  In  other  districts,  as  with  us,  the  books  seldom  leave  the 
shelves. 

If  these  figures  from  the  latest  official  statistics  are  reliable,  and 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  doubt,  the  number  of  loans  increased 
76  per  cent  between  1887  and  1883,  when  the  first  reports  of  this 
kind  were  required. 


81 


We  must  admit  that  the  above  table  shows  steady  proprress.  This 
is  easily  understood  when  we  note  the  care  taken  by  the  authorities 
throug^h  wise  counsels  and  prizes  to  encourage  a  taste  for  good 
reading. 

Pedagogic  Libraiues. 

These  libraries  which  exist  in  most  departments  complement  the 
teachers'  conferences.  Teachers  desirous  of  completing  their  educa- 
tion or  of  extending  their  professional  information  find  therein  the 
necessary  pedagogic  works,  including  periodicals  and  official 
documents. 

The  following  table  shows  the  condition  of  these  libraries  from 
1882  to  1887 : 


1883 
1883 
1881 
1886 
1886 
1887 


Number  of 
libraries. 

Number  of 
volumes. 

3.470 

685.661 

a,6oo 

663.878 

a.  624 

753,336 

3,677 

803,419 

3.636 

876.739 

3.654 

889,183 

In  five  years  the  number  of  libraries  increased  by  184,  and  the 
number  of  volumes  by  303,532. 

SCHOOL  SAVINGS  BANKS. 
Caisses  d'Epargne  scolaires. 

These  banks  are  established  voluntarily  by  teachers.  The  admin- 
istration of  public  instruction  encourages  them  with  the  idea  that 
the  promotion  of  a  spirit  of  economy  on  the  part  of  pupils  may  lead 
to  the  same  habit  and  taste  on  the  part  of  parents. 

The  following  table  shows  the  progress  made  between  1883  and  1888 : 


Number  of 
banks. 

Number  of 
books. 

AmonntB 
registered. 

1883 
1883 

19,433 

896.867 

$1,813,917 

31.484 

442.031 

3.049.666 

1884 

33.333 

468.634 

3,357.009 

Report  for  December  31 \ 

1886 

23.980 

491.160 

3,386,853 

1886 

33.875 

484.163 

3.467,631 

1887 

33.386 

478.173 

3,596,663 

32 

The  decrease  in  the  number  of  school  banks  in  1886  and  1887  may 
be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  some  teachers  have  substituted  postal 
banks  for  school  banks.  Nevertheless,  as  will  be  seen,  the  amounts 
deposited  have  increased  from  year  to  year. 

For  further  particulars  relating-  to  these  school  banks,  see  pag-e 
86.  Facts  like  these  serve  to  explain  the  ease  with  which  the 
French  people  raise  money  in  emergencies.  They  form  and 
encourage  the  habit  of  saving  if  no  more  than  penny  by  penny.* 


Caisses  des  Ecoles. 

The  following  table  shows  the  condition  of  the  caisses  des  ecoles 
in  January,  1883  and  in  January,  1888 : 


December  31, 
1882. 


December  31, 

1887. 


Number  of  caisses 

Values  in  caisse  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  exercice,  and 

total  receipts  of  current  exercice 

Total  expense  of  the  exercice 

Values  in  catsse  at  the  close  of  the  exercice 


16,207 

$612,232 
305,333 
306,900 


16,964 

$1,021,671 
703,684 
317,987 


The  law  of  March  28,  1882,  made  the  establishment  of  a  caisse  des 
ecoles  obligatory  for  each  commune.  As  the  result,  the  928  caisses 
in  January,  1880,  were  increased  to  16,954  in  January,  1888. 

MusEE  Pedagogique. 

This  very  useful  institution  is  situated  in  Paris.  It  contains  a 
very  complete  exhibit  of  models  of  schools,  school  furniture  and 
school  appliances  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Here  may  be  foimd 
one  of  the  best  pedagogic  libraries  in  existence,  and  most  interest- 
ing specimens  of  work  from  the  pupils  of  schools  of  diflferent 
countries. 

The  museum  is  open  daily,  Sundays  excepted,  from  10  a.  m.  to 
5  P.  M.    Admission  is  by  card  except  on  Thursday  (1891). 

It  is  now  proposed  to  make  a  permanent  exhibit  of  the  cahiers  of 
pupils  from  all  French  primary  schools.     Specimens  of  these  blank- 

*  School  savines  banks  are  found  in  Beleium,  Eaeland,  Germany,  Italy,  Switzerland, 
Russia  and  other  European  countries.  Tbiry's  "School  Savings  Banks  in  the  United 
States  "  shows  what  has  been  done  and  what  may  be  done  in  this  country. 


33 

books  of  monthly  tasks  are  to  be  deposited  (if  the  plan  is  adopted) 
annually  at  the  museum  as  an  incentive  to  earnest  eflfort,  and  as  an 
indication  of  the  progress  made  from  year  to  year. 

Miscellaneous. 

In  addition  to  the  auxiliary  institutions  mentioned  above,  there 
are  thousands  of  museums  accessible  to  the  pupils  and  teachers. 
Many  are  directly  connected  with  the  schools. 

The  value  of  these  institutions  is  shown  in  the  high  appreciation 
by  the  French  people  of  works  of  art.  This  is  largely  due  to  the 
foundations  laid  in  the  primary  schools. 

Teachers'  mutual  aid  societies,*  the  Oeuvre  de  VOrphelinat  de 
VEnsevjnement  primaire,'\  army  and  navy  schools,  asyla  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  the  blind  and  the  insane,  and  reform  schools  are  among 
the  auxiliaries  of  primary  instruction,  too  numerous  to  be  set  forth 
here  in  detail. 


NINTH  CHAPTER. 

STATISTICS  SHOWING  THE  CONDITION  OF  PRIMARY  INSTRUC- 
TION IN  ALGERIA.! 

Inasmuch  as  public  instruction  in  Algeria,  by  virtue  of  the  decrees 
of  1883,  is  a  part  of  that  of  France,  we  must  review  briefly  the  sta- 
tistics from  the  three  departments  of  Algeria,  in  order  to  present 
fully  the  condition  of  the  schools  under  the  direction  and  supervision 
of  the  minister  of  public  instruction. 

In  October,  1887,  the  primary  schools  of  Algeria  numbered  1,129, 
as  against  978  in  1882 ;  1,840  primary  teachers,  as  against  1,492 ; 
366  teachers  of  ecoles  maternelles,  as  against  296 ;  97,097  pupils,  as 
against  78,016 ;  8,963  native  pupils,  as  against  3,516. 

Of  the  33,917  French  pupils  of  school  age,  26,836,  or  79  per  cent, 
frequented  the  primary  schools.  There  were  also  1,400  pupils  of 
school  age  in  secondary  schools. 

The  recruitment  of  the  teaching  force  is  assured  in  part  by  four 
normal  schools ;  two  for  males  and  two  for  females.  There  are  also 
two  normal  courses  for  native  teachers  annexed  to  the  normal 
schools  at  Algiers  and  Constantine. 

*  Teachers'  mutaal  aid  societies  are  found  in  all  departments  uf  France  except  five, 
la  1887  these  societies  reported  a  capital  of  $307,354. 

t  This  association  hasnj  orphiinase.  but  provides  for  the  care  in  private  families  of 
orphans  whose  parents  were  teachers  or  school  officers. 

t  France  is  now  laborinK  strenuously  to  promote  public  education  in  her  coloniesund 
In  the  pat/a  de protectorat. 

.5 


34 


TENTH  CHAPTER 
PRIVATE  SCHOOLS. 

Directors  of  private  schools  are  free  to  choose  methods  of 
instruction,  courses  of  study  and  books,  provided  the  books  are  not 
among  those  blacklisted  by  the  higher  council  as  contrary  to 
morals,  the  constitution  and  the  laws. 

No  private  school  may  be  given  the  title  upper  primary  school 
unless  the  director  hold  the  certificates  required  in  the  case  of 
public  upper  primary  schools. 

No  private  school,  without  the  authorization  of  the  department 
council,  may  receive  children  of  both  sexes,  if  there  exist  in  the 
locality  a  special  public  or  private  school  for  girls. 

No  private  school  may  receive  children  under  6,  if  there  exist  in 
the  commune  a  public  ecole  maternelle  or  classe  enfantine,  unless 
provided  with  a  classe  enfantine. 

Every  teacher  desiring  to  open  a  private  school  must  first  declare 
his  intention  to  the  mayor  of  the  commime,  indicating  the  site  for 
the  school. 

The  mayor  acknowledges  formallj'^  the  receipt  of  the  declaration, 
which  is  posted  at  the  entrance  to  the  mayoralty  for  one  month. 

If  the  mayor  find  that  the  proposed  site  is  not  suitable  for 
reasons  touching  morals  or  health,  he  opposes  the  operjing  of  the 
school,  informing  the  postulant  within  eight  days  after  the 
declaration. 

The  same  formal  steps  must  be  taken  in  case  of  a  change  in  the 
location  of  a  private  school,  or  in  case  of  the  admission  of  boarders. 

The  postulant  sends  the  same  declaration  to  the  prefect,  the 
academy  inspector  and  the  government  attorney.  He  submits  also  to 
the  academy  inspector  his  birth  certificate,  his  diplomas,  a  state- 
ment of  residence  and  work  for  ten  preceding  years,  the  plan  of  the 
school,  and,  if  he  belong  to  any  association,  a  copy  of  the  statutes 
of  said  association. 

The  academy  inspector,  either  of  his  own  accord,  or  on  complaint 
of  the  government  ttorney,  may  oppose  the  opening  of  the  school 
on  moral  or  sanitary  grounds. 

In  the  case  of  a  dismissed  public  teacher,  wishing  to  establish 
himself  as  private  teacher  in  the  district  in  which  he  once  taught, 
the  opposition  may  be  made  in  the  interest  of  public  order. 

In  case  no  opposition  is  made,  the  school  is  opened  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  month  without  further  formality. 


36 

In  cases  of  opposition  to  the  opening'  of  private  schools,  decisions 
are  given  by  the  department  council  within  a  month.  An  appeal 
may  be  made  from  these  decisions  to  the  higher  council.  The 
school  is  not  to  be  opened  while  the  appeal  is  pending. 

Failure  to  comply  with  these  provisions  subjects  to  fines  of 
from  $20  to  $200.  The  school  is  closed.  In  case  of  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  offense,  the  delinquent  is  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  from  six  days  to  one  month,  and  pays  a  fine  of  from  $100  to 
$400.  Extenuating  circumstances  meet  consideration  under  article 
463  of  the  penal  code. 

Every  private  teacher  may  be  brought  before  the  department 
council  on  complaint  of  the  academy  inspector,  for  any  serious  fault 
in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  for  misconduct  or  immorality.  The 
department  council  may  censure  or  may  suspend,  temporarily  or 
permanently,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  offense.  An  appeal 
may  be  made  to  the  higher  council. 

Every  director  of  a  private  school  refusing  to  submit  to  the 
supervision  and  inspection  of  the  school  authorities,  under  legal 
provisions,  is  fined  from  $10  to  $100,  and,  for  a  second  offense, 
from  $100  to  $200.  Extenuating  circumstances  meet  conside;*ation 
under  the  section  of  the  penal  code  referred  to  above.  In  case  of 
two  offenses  in  one  year  the  establishment  will  be  closed. 


ELEVENTH  CHAPTEE. 
ESTABLISHMENT  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

Every  district  {commune)  should  be  provided  with  at  least  one 
public  elementary  school,  but  with  the  authorization  of  the  depart- 
ment council  and  with  the  consent  of  the  minister,  several  communes 
may  unite  in  establishing  and  maintaining  a  school. 

Several  villages  of  a  commune  may  be  attached  to  the  school  of  a 
neighboring  commune  by  a  decision  of  the  interested  communes. 
In  case  of  a  difference  of  opinion,  this  may  be  prescribed  by  a  decree 
of  the  department  council. 

If  the  commune  or  union  of  communes  have  500  inhabitants  or 
more,  it  should  have  at  least  one  special  school  for  girls,  unless 
authorized  by  the  department  council  to  substitute  a  mixed  school. 

The  law  of  March  20,  1883  makes  it  obligatory  on  each  commune 
to  establish  schools  at  the  chief  place  in  the  commune  and  in  the 
villages  or  centers  of  population  at  a  distance  of  three  kilometers 
from  the  said  chief  place  or  from  each  other,  and  embracing  at  least 


36 

20  children  of  school  age.  By  law  of  October  30,  1886,  the  district 
of  village  schools  so  created  may  include  portions  of  several  com- 
munes. In  this  case  as  in  the  cases  referred  to  above,  the  interested 
communes  contribute  toward  the  expense  of  building  and  maintain- 
ing the  schools  in  the  proportions  determined  by  the  municipal 
councils,  and,  in  case  of  differences  of  opinion,  by  the  prefect  with 
the  advice  of  the  department  council.* 

The  department  council  of  public  instruction,  with  the  advice  of 
the  municipal  councils  and  with  the  approval  of  the  minister,  deter- 
mines the  number,  nature  and  location  of  the  public  primary  schools 
of  every  degree,  which  each  commune  is  to  establish  and  maintain, 
and  the  number  of  teachers  to  be  employed  therein. 

The  expense  of  the  establishment  of  public  primary  schools  is  to 
be  borne  by  the  communes.  The  lodging  of  the  teaching  force ;  the 
maintenance  or  rent  of  the  buildings ;  the  purchase  and  mainten- 
ance of  the  school  furniture ;  the  heating,  lighting  and  janitor's  fees 
miist  be  paid  by  the  communes.  The  same  law  also  applies  to 
public  girls'  schools  now  established  in  communes  of  more  than  400 
souls ;  to  public  motherly  schools  {moles  luaternelles)  which  are  or 
will  be  established  in  communes  of  more  than  2,000  souls,  having  a 
close  population  of  at  least  1,200  souls  ;t  to  public  classes  enfantines 
embracing  children  of  both  sexes  and  taught  by  women. 

By  law  of  March  20,  1883,  the  expense  of  establishing  a  school  is 
met  either  by  levying  on  available  funds  of  the  commune  or  by  a 
loan  at  the  special  caisse  or  by  grants  from  the  department  and  from 
the  State. 

The  site  for  the  school  is  designated  by  the  municipal  council,  or, 
in  default,  by  the  prefect. 

By  law  of  April  7,  1887,  the  plans  and  estimates  are  prepared  by 
the  mayor  and  adopted  by  the  municipal  council.  They  are 
examined  by  the  academy  inspector  who  consults  the  department 
committee  on  public  buildings.  On  the  report  of  the  academy 
inspector,  the  prefect  determines  whether  the  plans  and  estimates 
are  to  be  accepted  or  whether  the  municipal  council  is  to  be 
requested  to  present  others. 

If  the  plans  are  to  be  accepted  the  municipal  council  is  to  vote 
the  loans  and  provide  the  necessary  resources. 

•  la  1887  there  were  80  communes  which  had  no  schools  and  67  which  had  only  private 
schools.     In  1882  the  flKures  were  159  and  89  respectively. 

t  The  law  does  not  obliKe  communes  to  estiiblish  e'coles  maternelles,  and  they  are  not 
olaased  as  public  institutions  in  smaller  communes. 


87 

When  the  municipal  council  has  voted  a  loan  for  at  least  thirty 
years,  destined  to  pay  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  estimated 
expense,  and  has  decided  to  demand  aid  from  the  state  by  virtue  of 
the  law  of  June  20,  1885,  the  prefect  submits  the  claim  to  the 
general  council  at  its  next  sesssion.  If  the  council  refuse  or  neg^lect 
to  come  to  a  decision,  the  prefect  applies  to  the  minister  of  public 
instruction. 

If  the  minister  approve  all  arrang-ements,  including  plans,  speci- 
fications and  estimates,  he  fixes  the  amount  of  the  State  grant 
according  to  decree  of  February  15,  1886,  and  determines  the  time 
for  the  completion  of  the  work. 

The  work  of  construction  is  supervised  by  a  member  of  the 
department  committee  on  public  buildings  whose  salary  and 
expenses  are  included  in  the  original  estimate.  The  State  makes 
no  payments  until  the  building  is  finished  and  approved,  «xcept  on 
the  certificate  of  this  official  that  the  work  is  being  done  according 
to  contract. 

By  law  of  June  20,  1885,  the  proportion  of  the  annuities  paid 
by  the  State  may  not  in  any  case  exceed  80  per  cent  nor  be 
less  than  15  per  cent,  in  accordance  with  the  resources  of  the 
commime. 

Communes  whose  centime  communal  represents  a  greater  value 
than  6,000  francs,  can  not  receive  any  aid  from  the  State,  either  for 
the  construction,  reconstruction  or  enlargement  of  their  primary 
schools. 

Each  year  the  budget  of  public  instruction  contains  a  special 
chapter  on  grants  to  departments,  cities  or  communes,  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  portion  of  the  annuities  due  for  the  construction  of 
public,  high,  secondary  and  primary  schools. 

The  following  table  fixes  the  maximum  amount  toward  which  the 
State  will  contribute  for  the  diflferent  classes  of  schools  connected 
with  primary  instruction : 

1.  For  a  village  school  (uDfrraded) $3,400 

2.  For  a  school  In  the  chief  place  of  a  commune  (with  one  class  either  mixed  or 

for  Klrls  or  for  boys) S.ooo 

3.  ¥ox  B,  groupe  scolaire,  with  one  class  for  each  sex 6.000 

4.  For  each  class  added  to  the  oroupe  scolaire,  or  to  a  school  in  the  chief  place  of  a 

commune a.400 

6.  For  an  ^cole  maternelle 3,600 

6.  For  an  upper  primary  school 10,000 

7.  For  a  normal  school 80,000 


88 


TWELFTH  CHAPTER. 
INSPECTION. 

Public  and  private  primary  schools  are  inspected : 

1.  By  the  inspectors  general  of  public  instruction. —  These  officers 
are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  republic  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  minister.  They  are  chosen  from  the  rectors, 
academy  inspectors,  college  professors,  secondary  school  principals, 
inspectors  of  primary  instruction  and  other  officers  whose  qualifica- 
tions are  definitely  fixed  by  law.  At  the  commencement  of  each 
year  the  minister  assio^ns  to  each  of  these  officers  the  departments 
he  is  to  visit.  The  condition  of  normal  schools  is  determined  by 
special  inspection.  Vocal  and  instrumental  music,  manual  training 
and  modern  languages  in  normal  schools  and  in  upper  primary 
schools  are  the  objects  of  special  missions,  while  the  inspection  of 
the  drawing  in  these  schools  is  confided  to  special  inspectors,  each 
one  for  the  district  to  which  he  is  attached.  The  inspectors  general 
form  a  committee,  under  the  director  of  primary  instruction  as 
chairman,  to  study  questions  submitted  by  the  minister. 

2.  By  the  rectors  and  academy  inspectors.  —  The  rectors  are 
appointed  by  the  president  of  the  republic  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  minister. 

They  must  have  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor.  The  principal 
duties  of  rectors  are  to  approve  the  list  of  books  to  be  used  in 
the  public  schools  of  each  department ;  to  appoint  the  commission 
for  the  examination  of  candidates  seeking  admission  to  the  normal 
schools;  to  regulate  promotion  of  students  in  normal  schools; 
to  name  normal  school  physicians ;  to  arrange  the  division  of 
work  in  normal  school  faculties ;  to  appoint  examining  committees 
for  teachers'  certificates  and  pupils'  certificates.  The  academy 
inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  minister.  They  must  either  have 
had  ten  years'  experience  in  teaching  or  hold  a  diploma  equivalent 
to  our  bachelor's  degree.  They  are  chosen  from  college  professors, 
principals  of  secondary  schools,  inspectors  of  primary  instruction 
and  other  school  officers  whose  qualifications  are  defined  by  law. 
The  principal  duties  of  academy  inspectors  are  to  insure  the  execu- 
tion of  orders ;  to  authorize  public  ecoles  maternelles  to  receive  more 
than  150  children  ;  to  accord  dispensations  in  age  for  teachers'  certi- 
ficates ;  to  choose  subjects  for  theses  at  examinations  for  teachers' 
certificates  and  school  examinations ;  to  report  the  results  of  teachers' 
examinations ;  to  name  the  commission  for  examining  teachers  of 


39 

needlework ;  to  preside  over  the  commissions  for  the  certificate  of 
aptitude  pedcujogique,  and  of  admission  to  the  normal  school. 

3.  By  the  inspectors  and  inspectresses  of  primary  instruction. — 
These  officers  are  named  by  the  minister.  They  must  hold  the  cer- 
tificate of  fitness  for  the  inspection  of  primary  schools,  and  for  the 
direction  of  normal  schools.  An  annual  examination  is  held  for  this 
purpose  before  a  commission  of  five  persons.  Candidates  must  be 
at  least  25  years  of  age.  They  must  have  had  an  experience  of  at 
least  five  years  in  teaching"  in  public  schools.  During  two  of  these 
years  at  least  they  must  have  directed  a  school.  They  must  hold 
the  certificate  of  fitness  for  a  professorship  in  the  normal  schools,  or 
the  title  of  professor  or  bachelor  of  secondary  instruction,  or  diplomas 
equivalent  to  our  high  school  diplomas  or  bachelors'  degrees.  The 
examination  is  both  oral  and  written,  including  a  practical  test. 
The  oral  examination  embraces  pedagogy,-  school  law  and  school 
management.  Candidates  are  required  to  explain  a  passage  in  one 
of  the  authors'  designated  for  the  yeiar.  They  next  draw  by  lot  a 
question  relative  to  some  point  included  in  the  program  of  examina- 
tions, and,  after  three  hours'  reflection,  this  question  is  treated  orally. 

The  written  examination  consists  of  two  theses  composed  in  two 
consecutive  days,  one  on  some  pedagogic  subject,  the  other  on  school 
administration. 

The  practical  test  lies  in  the  inspection  of  a  normal  school,  an 
upper  primary  school,  a  lower  primary  school  or  ecole  mater nelle 
followed  by  a  verbal  report  (1887,  1888). 

These  officers  con'espond  to  our  school  commissioners.  They  are 
placed  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the  academy  inspector,  and 
receive  no  instructions  save  from  him,  the  rector,  the  inspectors 
general  and  the  minister.  They  are  not  permitted  to  accept  any 
other  public  position,  except  the  inspection  of  children  employed  in 
manufactories.  Their  principal  duties  are  to  assure  the  execution 
of  orders ;  to  inspect  new  school  buildings  before  they  are  opened ; 
to  inspect  public  and  private  schools ;  to  control  the  classification 
and  gi-adation  of  pupils;  to  approve  the  time-tables  adopted  by 
school  directors ;  to  authorize  promotion  from  the  ecoles  maternelles 
or  the  classes  enfantines  to  the  primary  schools ;  to  make  a  report 
to  the  academy  inspector  within  fifteen  days  after  each  inspection ; 
to  supervise  the  formation  and  construction  of  public  schools,  the 
opening  of  private  schools,  of  classes  of  adults  and  apprentices ;  to 
establish  school  banks  {caisses  des  ecoles) ;  to  give  advice  touching 
the  nomination  and  promotion  of  public  school  teachers,  and  their 
rewards  and  punishments. 


40 

Primary  inspectors  are  divided  into  classes.  To  be  eligible  for 
promotion  to  a  higher  class,  they  must  have  spent  three  years  in 
the  class  next  below  and  must  be  on  the  list  for  advancement  made 
each  year  by  the  inspectors  general. 

4.  By  the  members  of  the  department  council  appointed  for  the 
purpose. —  These  officers  inspect  only  the  condition  of  school  build- 
ings, furniture,  and  supplies,  the  health  and  deportment  of  pupils. 
They  have  no  authority  to  touch  on  the  course  of  study  or  methods 
of  instruction. 

5.  By  the  mayor  and  cantonal  delegates  {delegues  cantonaux). — The 
inspection  of  these  officers  is  restricted  as  explained  under  4. 

6.  By  the  inspectresses  general  and  department  inspectresses  of  the 
ecoles  mater nelles. —  Both  classes  of  officials  are  appointed  by  the 
minister.  Inspectresses  general  must  have  attained  the  age  of  35 
years,  with  five  years'  experience  in  public  or  private  instruction, 
and  hold  the  certificate  of  fitness  for  the  inspection  of  the  ecoles 
maternelles  and  classes  enfantines.  Inspectresses  general  belong  to 
the  consultation  committee  of  primary  education.  Department 
inspectresses  must  be  30  years  of  age,  with  three  years'  experience 
in  public  or  private  instruction.  They  must  hold  the  same  cer- 
tificate of  capacity  as  the  inspectresses  general.  These  inspectresses 
advise  the  nomination  and  recall  of  directors  and  teachers  of  ecoles 
maternelles.  Restricted  to  these  schools  their  duties  correspond  in 
a  measure  with  those  of  primary  inspectors. 

An  annual  examination  for  the  fitness  for  the  inspection  of  ecoles 
maternelles  and  classes  enfantines  is  held  before  a  commission 
appointed  by  the  minister. 

Candidates  must  be  at  least  25  years  of  age.  They  must  have 
taught  at  least  five  years  in  public  schools.  They  must  hold  either 
the  brevet  superieur  (page  43),  the  certifcat  d'aptitude  pedagogique 
(page  44),  or  the  certifcat  d'aptitude  a  Venseignement  des  jeunes 
files. 

The  examination  is  both  oral  and  written,  including  a  practical 
test. 

The  oral  examination  embraces  hygiene,  pedagogy  as  applied  to 
icoles  maternelles,  school  law  and  school  administration,  in  so  far  as 
the  same  relate  to  these  schools. 

The  written  test  consists  of  two  theses,  one  on  some  pedagogic 
subject  pertaining  to  ecoles  maternelles,  the  other  on  questions  of 
hygiene  relating  to  these  schools. 

The  practical  test  is  a  visit  to  an  ecole  maternelle  with  a  verbal 
report  of  the  same  (1887). 


41 

7.     From  a  medical  standpoint,  by  the  communal  or  departmental 

medical  inspectors. 

Regulation  of  Inspection. 

The  inspection  of  public  schools  is  made  in  accordance  with  the 
decrees  of  the  higrher  council  (page  11). 

The  inspection  of  private  schools  includes  morality,  hygiene  and 
the  obligations  imposed  by  the  compulsory  education  act  of  March 
28,  1882.  It  touches  the  course  of  study  and  methods  of  instruction 
only  in  so  far  as  the  same  be  contrary  to  morals,  to  the  constitution 
and  to  the  laws. 

Ministerial  deciees  regulate  the  inspection  districts,  the  number 
of  inspectors,  their  jurisdiction,  classification,  traveling  expenses  and 
promotion. 


THIRTEENTH  CHAPTER. 
TEACHERS'  CONFERENCES. 

Conferences  of  teachers  for  the  discussion  of  questions  pertaining 
to  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  were  established  in  1837,  but 
were  afterwards  abandoned.  In  1880  they  were  reestablished  and 
from  that  date  have  been  productive  of  much  good.  Attendance  is 
compulsory  and  the  expenses  of  teachers  are  paid  while  in  attend- 
ance. The  academy  inspector  presides  at  these  conferences  by 
right,  but,  in  his  absence,  the  duty  devolves  on  the  inspector  of 
primary  instruction. 

The  conferences  are  held  in  each  canton,  though  several  cantons 
may  unite.  The  rector  decides  as  to  whether  male  and  female 
teachers  are  to  attend  the  same  conference.  Usage  varies  in  this 
respect.  The  number,  date  and  place  of  meeting  of  these  confer- 
ences are  fixed  by  academic  authority.  At  the  last  meeting  of  each 
school  year,  the  conference  proposes  questions  for  the  following 
year.  These  are  published  as  soon  as  possible  by  the  academy 
inspector.  A  report  of  each  meeting  is  sent  to  the  inspector  of 
primary  instruction. 

In  the  circular  of  1880,  relative  to  these  conferences,  Jules  Ferry, 
at  that  time  minister  of  public  instruction,  wrote :  "  It  is  important 
that  oiu-  teaching  force  escape  the  feeling  of  isolation  which 
paralyzes  the  strongest  wills.  Young  or  old,  normal  school  gradu- 
ates or  not,  teachers  must  struggle  against  discouragement  and 
routine.  To  keep  each  one  in  touch  nothing  is  more  efficacious 
than  a  full  body  which  does  not  permit  any  of  its  members  to  grow 
feeble.  In  associating  in  these  periodic  conferences,  teachers  not 
6 


42 

only  learn  to  discuss  questions  of  methods  and  all  the  details  of 
school  organization  for  which  they  have  a  common  interest,  but 
they  form  pleasant  relations  with  their  colleagues  and  increase  the 
points  of  contact 'with  their  superior  officers,  creating  a  feeling  of 
good  fellowship  and  a  professional  spirit  which  constitute  the  power 
and  the  dignity  of  the  teaching  force." 


FOUETEENTH  CHAPTEK. 
THE  TEACHING  FORCE. 
No  one  is  permitted  to  teach  in  any  capacity  in  a  public  school 
unless  provided  with  the  certificates  required  by  law.* 

General  Certificates. 

The  general  certificates  of  capacity  for  primary  instruction  are : 
1.  T  e  brevet  elementaire.  —  Candidates  must  be  at  least  16  years 
of  age  imless  a  dispensation  is  granted  by  the  academy  inspector. 
The  examination  commission  is  composed  of  seven  members, 
appointed  annually  by  the  rector  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
academy  inspector.  Examinations  are  held  twice  a  year  in  each 
department.  Each  candidate  must  present  an  application  written 
and  signed  by  himself,  with  his  birth  certificate,  at  least  fifteen 
days  before  the  examination.  Persons  convicted  of  crime  or  dis- 
honorable acts,  or  deprived  of  all  or  part  of  the  rights  mentioned 
in  article  42  of  the  penal  code,  are  not  admitted  to  the  examination. 

The  examination  involves  three  series  of  tests, — 

a.  An  exercise  in  dictation  of  about  a  page  in  length  (the  punctu- 
ation is  not  dictated) ;  an  exercise  in  penmanship  of  one  page  in 
cursive,  hdtarde  and  ronde;  an  exercise  in  French  composition 
(letter  or  simply  story,  explanation  of  a  proverb,  maxim,  moral  or 
educational  precept);  a  question  in  arithmetic  and  in  the  metric 
system  with  the  full  solution  of  a  problem  (whole  numbers,  fractions, 
measure  of  surfaces  and  of  volumes). 

b.  The  free-hand  drawing  of  a  common  object  of  simple  form 
(plan,  section,  elevation);  elementary  gymnastic  exercises,  pre- 
scribed for  primary  schools.  The  girls  substitute  a  sketch  of  some 
common  object  and  specimens  of  needlework  (imder  the  supervision 
of  ladies  appointed  by  the  rector  for  this  purpose). 

•  Teachers  must  now  hold  State  certificates.  Before  1881  they  were  also  licensed  by 
ecclesiastics.  Time  was  allowed  for  eliminating  teachers  not  provided  with  State 
licenses. 


43 

c.  Five  oral  tests,  namely :  Reading  with  explanation,  from  a  col- 
lection of  extracts  in  prose  and  poetry,  with  questions  on  the  mean, 
ing-  of  words,  the  sequence  of  ideas  and  grammatic  construction ; 
questions  in  arithmetic  including:  the  metric  system ;  the  elements 
of  French  history  and  civics ;  the  geography  of  France,  with  exer- 
cises on  the  blackboard ;  elementary  music ;  elementary  notions  of 
the  physical  and  natural  sciences.  In  addition  the  boys  are  asked 
questions  pertaining  to  agriculture.  No  one  is  examined  on  a  sub- 
sequent series  if  he  or  she  fail  to  attain  half  the  maximum  credits 
allowed  for  the  preceding.  The  oral  and  written  tests  should  not  in 
any  case  go  beyond  the  me  an  of  the  courses  of  study  of  the  highest 
class  in  the  primary  schools.  The  fee  for  the  examination  is 
two  dollars.  Normal  school  pupils  are  exempt.  Rejected  candi- 
dates may  present  themselves  at  the  next  examination  (1887,  1888, 
1889). 

2.  The  brevet  superieur. —  Candidates  must  hold  the  brevet  ele- 
ment aire.  They  must  be  at  least  18  years  of  age  unless  a  dispensa- 
tion is  granted  by  the  academy  inspector.  The  examining  com- 
mission is  composed  of  at  least  seven  members,  appointed 
annually  by  the  rector,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  academy 
inspectors.  Examinations  are  held  twice  a  year  in  each  depart, 
ment.  Candidates  must  present  the  brevet  elementaire,  an 
application  in  their  own  handwriting  and  signature,  and  birth 
certificate,  at  least  fifteen  days  before  the  examination.  Persons 
convicted  of  crime  or  dishonorable  acts  or  deprived  of  all  or  part  of 
the  rights  mentioned  in  article  42  of  the  penal  code  are  not  admitted 
to  the  examination. 

The  examination  comprises  oral  and  written  tests,  all  of  which 
must  be  borne  M  the  same  session. 

The  written  tests  are, — 

a.  A  composition  including  a  question  in  arithmetic,  and  one  on 
the  physical  and  natural  sciences  with  the  most  common  applications 
to  hygiene,  industry,  agriculture  and  horticulture.  The  male  candi- 
dates have  in  addition  a  question  involving  practical  operations  in 
geometry.    They  are  permitted  to  use  a  table  of  logarithms ; 

b.  A  French  composition  (literature  or  morale); 

c.  An  exercise  in  drawing  from  a  model ; 

d.  A  composition  in  modem  languages  (English,  German,  Italian, 
Spanish,  or  Arabic,  in  France  and  Algeria :  Greek  or  Turkish,  before 
the  commission  at  Constantinople),  consisting  of  an  easy  theme, 
with  lexicon. 


44 

The  oral  tests  are, — 

a.  Questions  on  education  and  morals ; 

h.  The  French  language:  Reading  with  explanation  from  a 
French  author  on  the  list  prepared  once  in  three  years  by  the 
minister  and  published  a  year  in  advance ;  questions  in  literary 
history,  limited  to  the  principal  authors  of  the  16th,  17th,  18th  and 
19th  centuries ; 

c.  Questions  on  memorable  epochs,  great  names,  essential  facts  in 
general  history  and  in  the  history  of  France,  principally  in  modem 
times ; 

d.  Questions  on  the  geography  of  France,  and  notions  of  general 
geography. 

e.  Arithmetic,  with  practical  applications ;  book-keeping,  and,  for 
the  men  alone,  an  elementary  knowledge  of  geometric  and  algebraic 
calculations,  land  surveying  and  leveling. 

/.  Notions  of  physics,  chemistry  and  natural  history,  and,  for 
the  males  alone,  an  elementary  knowledge  of  agriculture  and 
horticulture. 

g.  Translation  at  sight  of  about  twenty  lines  from  an  easy  English, 
German,  Italian,  Spanish  or  Arabic  text  at  the  choice  of  the  candi- 
date. Greek  or  Turkish  may  be  substituted  before  the  commission 
at  Constantinople.  The  written  and  oral  tests  of  the  brevet  super- 
ieur  ought  not  to  exceed  in  difficulty  the  mean  of  the  normal  school 
courses  of  study.  The  fee  for  the  examination  is  four  dollars.  Nor- 
mal school  pupils  are  exempt.  Rejected  candidates  may  present 
themselves  at  the  next  examination  (1887,  1888,  1889). 

3.  The  certijicat  d' aptitude  pedagogique.  —  Candidates  must  be  21 
years  of  age.  They  must  hold  at  least  the  brevet  elementaire. 
They  must  have  had  an  experience  of  at  least  two  y^ars  in  public 
or  private  schools.  The  time  passed  at  a  normal  school  as  pupil- 
teacher  after  18  years  of  age  for  the  males  and  17  years  for  the 
females  is  allowed  to  count  toward  the  experience  required.  Dis- 
pensations may  be  granted  by  the  minister  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  department  council.  An  annual  examination  is  held  in  each 
department  before  a  commission  of  at  least  ten  members,  appointed 
by  the  rector  on  the  recommendation  of  the  academy  inspectot. 
Candidates  must  apply  at  least  fifteen  days  in  advance,  presenting 
an  application  in  their  own  handwriting  and  with  their  own  signa- 
ture; the  birth  certificate;  the  brevet  elementaire  or  the  brevet 
siLperieur.  The  examination  is  both  written  and  oral,  including  a 
practical  test. 


45 

The  written  examination  consists  of  a  thesis  on  some  elementary 
educational  topic,  composed  during  the  last  week  of  the  long  vaca- 
tion under  the  supervision  of  the  primary  inspector,  and  corrected 
by  the  commission. 

The  practical  test  consists  of  three  hours'  work  in  the  school  or 
class  of  the  applicant.  A  sub-commission,  composed  of  at  least 
three  members,  including  a  primary  inspector  and  a  male  teacher 
(for  the  males)  and  a  female  teacher  (for  the  females)  is  appointed  by 
the  academy  inspector  for  the  purpose  of  supervising  the  test.  The 
female  may  take  this  test  in  an  ecole  materneUe,  but  in  this  case  the 
certificate  authorizes  her  to  teach  only  as  titufnire  in  these  schools. 
Private  teachers  are  permitted  to  undergo  this  test  either  in  their 
own  class  or  in  a  public  school. 

The  oral  test  which  is  taken  before  the  whole  commission  consists 
of  criticism  of  books  of  monthly  tasks  {colliers  de  devoirs  incnsuels)\ 
questions  relating  to  the  other  tests  and  involving  the  keeping  and 
direction  of  elementary  schools  or  ecoles  maternelles  and  questions 
on  practical  pedagogy  (1887,  1888). 

4.  Certificate  as  professor  of  the  upper  primary  schools. — The  qualifi- 
cations are  the  same  as  those  for  the  certificate  of  professor  in  the 
primary  normal  schools  for  males  and  females  (1887). 

5.  Certificate  as  professor  of  the  primary  normal  schools  for  males  and 
females.— There  are  two  kinds  of  certificates,  one  for  the  arts  and 
one  for  the  sciences.  Two  commissions  are  named  by  the  minister 
annually,  one  for  the  sciences  and  one  for  the  arts.  Each  commis- 
sion is  composed  of  at  least  five  members.  To  these  are  added, 
for  the  females,  two  directresses  or  professors  of  normal  schools 
for  females.  Special  examinations  may  also  be  appointed.  Candi- 
dates must  register  one  month  before  the  opening  of  the  session. 
They  must  be  at  least  21  years  of  age  and  must  specify  where  they 
have  lived  and  what  positions  they  have  held.  They  must  hold  the 
brevet  stiperieur  or  a  bachelor's  degree  or  (the  females)  a  diploma 
from  a  secondary  school.  They  must  have  had  at  least  two  years' 
experience  in  public  or  private  schools. 

The  tests  are  written,  oral  and  practical. 

The  written  tests  comprise,  for  the  arts, — 

A  theme  on  a  literary  or  grammatic  subject;  an  historic  and 
geographic  essay  ;  a  theme  on  morale  or  psychology  as  applied  to 
education ;  a  composition  in  English  or  German,  theme  and  version. 
For  the  sciences,  the  written  examination  comprises  a  matliematic 
exercise;  questions  in  physics,  chemistry  and  the  natural  sciences; 
an   exeicise  in  geometric  and   ornamental  drawing:    a  theme  on 


46 

morale  or  education.    The  subjects  are  chosen  from  the  courses  of 
study  in  the  primary  normal  schools. 

The  oral  and  practical  proofs  comprise,  for  the  arts,  a  lesson  on 
some  subject  chosen  by  lot,  followed  by  interrogations;  the  reading 
of  a  passage  from  a  French  classic,  with  explanation ;  the  correction 
of  a  task  of  a  pupil-teacher ;  the  explanation  at  sight  of  a  German 
or  English  text,  chosen  from  the  official  list  of  authors.  The  test 
for  the  sciences  consists  of  a  lesson  on  a  subject  chosen  by  lot 
(mathematics  or  physical  and  natural  sciences) ;  an  exercise  on  some 
other  subject  included  in  the  course  of  study,  which  may  comprise 
the  correction  of  a  task  of  a  pupil-teacher ;  a  physical  or  chemical 
experiment  and  a  practical  lesson  in  natural  history,  the  subject  to 
be  drawn  by  lot. 

Special  Certificates. 

The  special  certificates  for  particular  lines  of  primary  work  are, — 

1.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  modern  languages. —  Candidates  must 
have  attained  the  age  of  21  years.  They  must  have  had  two  years' 
experience  in  public  or  private  primary  or  secondary  schools,  or 
two  years'  residence  in  a  foreign  country.  The  males  must  hold 
the  brevet  superieur  or  one  of  the  three  bachelors'  degrees;  the 
females  the  brevet  superieur  or  the  diploma  received  on  graduation 
from  a  secondary  school  for  girls.  The  examination  is  held  before 
a  commission,  named  annually  by  the  minister  and  sitting  at  Paris. 

Candidates  must  specify  the  language  in  which  they  desire  to  be 
examined  (German,  English,  Italian,  Spanish,  Arabic) ;  the  diplomas 
and  certificates  which  they  possess ;  the  places  where  they  have 
resided,  and  the  positions  they  have  held. 

The  examination  is  both  written  and  oral. 

The  written  examination  comprises  a  version ;  a  theme  ;  a  simple 
composition  in  the  foreign  language  (letter  or  story,  explanation  of 
a  proverb,  maxim,  moral  or  educational  precept);  an  essay  in  French 
touching  the  method  of  teaching  modern  languages.  The  use  of 
the  dictionary  is  not  authorized. 

The  oral  examination  includes  the  reading  and  translation  of  a 
page  of  moderate  difficulty,  selected  from  the  list  of  authors  pre- 
scribed for  the  year,  with  definitions  of  words  and  grammatic  con- 
struction ;  a  conversational  exercise,  in  the  foreign  tongue,  on  the 
page  read ;  the  translation  at  sight  of  a  French  prose  author ;  ques- 
tion on  methods  of  teaching  modern  languages  (1887). 

2.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  manual  training. —  Candidates  should 
be  21  years  of  age.  The  males  should  hold  the  brevet  superieur, 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  or  bachelor  of  special  secondary 


J  ^iTiTy.  a.  /W 
InciL  ^*^/ A  /ay/uy 

TtUM-  \^yt!^A-  ^y?/^     Atuy^L 

Englista  Kxerciae  by  Frencb  Boy  Seven  Year*  of  Age. 

The  exercise  here  Kiven  was  selected  at  a  recitation  in  the  elementary  course  of  one  of  the 
special  Parisian  schools  in  which  EnftHsh  is  tauKht.  It  seems  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  sender 
in  EuKlish  seems  as  difficult  to  French  as  sender  in  French  to  Encrlish  pupils. 


47 

instruction.*  The  females  should  hold  the  brevet  auperieur  or  the 
diploma  received  on  g^raduation  from  a  secondary  school  for  ^rls. 

The  examination  is  held  by  two  commissions,  one  for  males,  the 
other  for  females. 

These  commissions  are  named  each  year  by  the  minister,  and  sit 
at  Paris. 

Candidates  should  register  one  month  in  advance,  submitting:  a 
biographic  sketch  of  the  six  years  preceding  the  examination,  and 
proving  the  possession  of  the  requisite  certificates. 

The  males  must  submit, — 

«.  A  geometric  drawing  at  a  fixed  scale  of  an  object  in  relief,  or 
a  drawing  involving  an  elementary  problem  in  descriptive  geometry 
(line  and  plane,  intersection  of  geometric  solids  in  simple  cases  — 
prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders,  cones  and  spheres,  shading) ; 

b.  A  written  composition  on  some  pedagogic  subject  related  to 
manual  instruction ; 

c.  A  test  in  modeling  from  an  easy  model ; 

d.  A  piece  in  iron  or  wood  made  from  a  working  dra^ving ; 

e.  A  simple  exercise  in  turning  and  sculpturing  after  a  model ; 

f.  An  explanation,  in  the  form  of  a  lesson  of  fifteen  minutes,  of  a 
subject  drawn  by  lot  from  matters  which  should  be  commented  on 
by  the  teacher  before  every  exercise  in  manual  training,  such  as  the 
tools,  the  material,  the  plan  and  the  rational  execution  of  the  task. 
Candidates  are  allowed  one-half  hour  for  preparation. 

The  females  must  submit, — 

a.  A  composition  on  some  question  in  domestic  economy ; 

b.  An  ornamental  design  for  needlework ; 

c.  A  practical  test,  including  one  or  more  exercises  from  the 
courses  of  study  in  manual  training  for  girls  in  the  normal  and 
upper  primary  schools ; 

d.  An  explanation,  in  the  form  of  a  fifteen  minute  lesson,  of  a 
subject  included  in  the  courses  of  study  of  the  schools  last  men- 
tioned in  domestic  economy  and  needlework.  One-half  hour  is 
allowed  for  preparation. 

The  candidates  may  ask  for  the  following  additional  tests : 

a.  Drawing  from  an  ornament  in  relief ; 

b.  A  blackboard  exercise  of  ten  minutes,  after  twenty  minutes' 
preparation,  consisting  of  a  lesson  on  the  representation  at  sight  of 
some    common  object  in  perspective.      Certificates  of  candidates 

*  la  France  the  deirrees  bachelor  of  arts  and  bachelor  of  science  may  he  f^erure d  at  16 
Tears  of  asre.  They  are  not  as  advanced  as  our  own  bachelors'  deerees,  to  which  the 
diplome  de  licertcites  lettre$  and  the  diplome  de  licenciu'es  sciences  more  nearly  correspond. 


48 

sustaining  these  complementary  tests  authorize  the  teaching  of 
imitative  drawing  {dessin  d'  imitation)  in  the  upper  primary  schools 
(1887,11891). 

3.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  drawing  {dessin  d'  imitation  et  dessin  geome- 
trique). — An  annual  examination  is  held  at  Paris  by  a  commission 
named  by  the  minister.  The  candidates  must  be  18  years  of  age 
and  must  register  one  month  in  advance.  The  examination  com- 
prises three  series  of  tests  —  Avritten  and  graphic,  oral,  pedagogic. 

The  written  and  graphic  tests  include : 

a.  Representation  in  perspective  .of  a  simple  object,  such  as  a 
geometric  solid,  fragment  of  architecture,  simple  vase,  etc.  The 
candidate  must  give  on  the  same  sheet  a  geometric  plan  and  eleva- 
tion, and,  if  necessary,  a  section  of  the  object  represented,  the  whole 
with  dimensions  and  drawn  to  a  fixed  scale. 

h.  A  simple  theme ; 

c.  The  drawing  at  sight  of  an  ornament  in  relief  —  foliage,  rosette, 
capital ; 

d.  The  drawing  of  a  head  after  the  antique. 

The  oral  tests  comprise  an  examination  on  projections  in  general, 
on  geometric  representation  and  the  drawing  in  perspective  of 
simple  objects;  elementary  questions  on  historic  art  with  drawing 
on  blackboard ;  questions  on  the  structure  and  proportions  of  the 
human  body  and  anatomy  in  general. 

The  pedagogic  tests  comprise  the  correction  of  one  of  the  orna- 
mental drawings  made  at  the  examination;  the  correction  of  a 
drawing  of  a  head  ;  a  lesson  on  the  blackboard  on  a  subject  included 
in  the  course  of  instruction  in  geometric  drawing  at  the  normal  and 
upper  primary  schools  (1887). 

4.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  singing. —  An  annual  examination  is 
held  before  a  commission  at  Paris,  named  by  the  minister.  Candi- 
dates must  be  18  years  of  age  and  must  register  at  least  fifteen  days 
before  the  examination. 

There  are  two  series  of  tests. 

The  first  series  includes, — 

a.  A  theme  on  some  question  of  musical  instruction  found  in  the 
normal  school  courses  of  study ; 

6.  An  exercise  in  musical  dictation ; 

c.  An  exercise  in  construction  and  harmonization ; 

The  second  series  includes, — 

a.  Heading  at  sight  a  lesson  in  solfege  in  the  key  of  sol  and  in  the 
key  of /a  ; 

b.  Singing  of  a  melody  with  words,  chosen  by  the  candidate ; 


49 

c.  Performance  of  an  air  by  heart,  with  words  and  without 
accompanimeA;,  chosen  by  the  candidate ; 

d.  Performance  at  sight  of  a  simple  accompaniment  on  the  piano, 
which  is  to  be  transposed  at  once  into  the  key  indicated  by  the 
jury; 

e.  Questions  on  the  theory  of  music ; 

f.  Notions  of  the  history  of  music ; 

Knowledg-e  of  the  principal  masterpieces  of  choral  music ; 

g.  A  theoretic  and  practical  lesson  by  the  candidate  on  the  black- 
board (1887). 

5.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  gymnastics.—  An  annual  examination  is 
held  before  a  commission  which  is  named  by  the  rector  and  which 
sits  at  Paris. 

Candidates  must  reg-ister  at  least  fifteen  days  before  the  examina- 
tion, and  must  state  where  they  have  resided,  what  positions  they 
have  occupied,  and  what  certificates  they  hold. 

The  examination  comprises  oral  and  practical  tests. 

The  oral  examination  embraces  questions  on  those  sciences  which 
find  a  direct  application  in  the  study  of  gymnastics  (according  to 
ministerial  decree). 

The  practical  examination  includes  the  performance  of  five  gym- 
nastic exercises  from  among  those  prescribed  in  the  manual  pub- 
lished by  the  ministry ;  the  direction  of  the  gymnastic  exercises  of 
a  group  of  pupils  (1887,  1888,  1891). 

6.  Certificate  as  teacfier  of  needlework.  —  The  examination  is  held 
before  a  commission  in  each  department.  Applicants  must  register 
at  least  eight  days  before  the  examination.  They  must  be  18  years 
of  age  and,  with  their  application  in  their  own  handwiiting  and 
signature,  they  must  submit  their  birth  certificate. 

The  needlework  which  candidates  are  to  execute  is  chosen  from 
the  courses  of  study  in  the  middle  and  upper  classes  of  the  lower 
primary  schools  (1887). 

7.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  military  exercises. —  The  examination  is 
held  before  a  commission  in  each  department.  Candidates  should 
register  eight  days  in  advance.  They  should  be  18  years  of  age, 
and  with  the  application  written  in  their  own  hand  and  signed,  they 
should  submit  their  birth  certificate ;  a  certificate  of  the  military 
authorities  that  they  have  served  in  the  active  army,  and  have 
merited  the  certificate  of  good  conduct. 

Candidates  direct  the  military  exercises  of  a  group  of  pupils  as 
indicated  by  the  commission  in  accordance  with  the  program  of  the 
lower  primary  schools  (1887). 
7 


50 

8.  Certificate  as  teacher  of  agriculture. —  Candidates  should  hold  the 
brevet  superieur  and  the  certifi^at  d' aptitude  pedagogique,  &jM.  should  have 
been  for  one  year  in  a  State  agricultural  school.  Dispensations  may 
be  granted  by  the  minister  on  the  recommendation  of  the  rector. 

The  possession  of  the  professor's  certificate  for  the  normal  schools 
and  for  the  upper  primary  schools  does  away  with  the  necessity  of 
holding  the  certijwai,  d'aptitude  pedagogique. 

The  examination  includes  oral,  written  and  practical  tests. 

The  written  tests  consist  of  a  composition  on  a  subject  included 
in  the  course  of  study  in  agriculture  and  horticulture  in  the  upper 
primary  schools.    Candidates  are  forbidden  to  use  any  book  or  note. 

The  oral  tests  consist  of  an  explanation,  after  preparation  with 
closed  doors,  of  a  subject  taken  from  the  course  of  study  of  upper 
primary  schools  in  agiiculture  and  horticulture ;  of  questions  on 
the  physical  and  natural  sciences  in  their  relations  to  agriculture. 

The  practical  proofs  are  two  in  number.  The  first  is  in  connec- 
tion with  agricultural  experiments  or  land  improvements.  It 
embraces  the  composition  of  the  soil,  the  proper  manures,  the 
manner  of  using,  the  seed  to  sow,  the  variety  of  plants  to  cultivate, 
the  manner  of  cultivation,  the  feeding  of  live  stock,  the  poultry,  etc. 
The  second  takes  place  in  a  garden.  It  relates  to  the  operations  of 
grafting  and  pruning,  to  the  multiplication  of  fruit  trees,  to  market- 
gardening,  apiculture,  etc.  In  the  course  of  these  tests,  the  candi- 
dates are  to  respond  to  questions  of  the  jury,  particularly  concerning 
products  of  the  neighborhood  (1891). 

9.  Certijicate  as  director  of  normal  school. —  The  qualifications  are 
the  same  as  those  for  an  inspector  of  primary  schools  and  are  given 
in  the  chapter  on  inspection. 

Classes  of  Teachers. —  Penalties  and  Eecompenses. 

Male  and  female  teachers  are  divided  into  two  classes,  called 
Hlagiaires  and  tUulaires. 

No  one  can  be  appointed  instituteur  titulaire  if  he  has  not  had  at 
least  two  years'  experience  in  a  public  or  private  school,  if  he  is  not 
provided  with  the  certificat  d'aptitude  pedagogique,  and  if  he  has  not 
been  placed  on  the  list  prepared  by  the  department  council. 

The  time  passed  at  the  normal  school  after  18  for  the  males  and 
17  for  the  females  is  allowed  in  reckoning  the  two  years. 

Dispensations  may  be  granted  by  the  minister  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  department  council. 

The  titulaires  in  charge  of  a  school  with  more  than  two  classes 
take  the  name  directeur  or  directrice  of  lower  primary  schools. 


51 

The  number  of  assistants  in  schools  with  several  classes  is  deter- 
mined by  the  department  council.  These  assistants  are  either 
stagiaires  or  titxdaires.  Assistants  in  upper  primary  schools  must  be 
21  years  of  ag^e  and  hold  the  brevet  superieur.  If  provided  with  the 
certificate  of  capacity  for  a  professorship  in  normal  schools,  they 
assume  the  title  professor. 

All  public  school  teachers  are  shut  out  from  the  commercial  and 
industrial  professions,  and  from  administrative  duties.  They  are 
forbidden  to  hold  employments  in  connection  with  relig^ious  ser- 
vices. They  may  exercise  the  duties  of  mayoralty -secretary,  with 
the  authorization  of  the  department  council. 

Instituteurs  stagiaires  teach  imder  appointment  of  the  academy 
inspector.  This  appointment  may  be  revoked  by  the  academy 
inspector  for  cause  shown  by  the  primary  inspector. 

The  stagiaires  are  subject  to  the  same  disciplines  as  the  titulaires, 
excepting  revocation. 

The  department  council  prepares  annually  a  list  of  all  teachers 
eligible  for  promotion  to  the  rank  of  tUulaires  as  assistants  in  or  in 
charge  of  a  school. 

The  appointment  of  instituteurs  titulaires  is  made  by  the  prefect, 
with  the  authority  of  the  minister  and  on  the  proposition  of  the 
academy  inspector. 

Directors,  directresses  and  professors  of  upper  primaiy  schools 
are  appointed  by  the  minister.  They  should  hold  the  certificate  of 
fitness  for  a  professorship  in  the  normal  schools. 

Assistant  teachers  holding  the  brevet  superieur,  and  special  teach- 
ers, are  appointed  by  the  prefect  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
academy  inspector. 

Directors  and  directresses  of  schools  of  manual  training  are 
appointed  by  the  minister  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  law  of 
December  11,  1880,  and  the  decree  of  March  17,  1888. 

Change  of  residence  of  titulaires  for  the  needs  of  the  service  is 
pronounced  by  the  prefect  on  the  recommendation  of  the  academy 
inspector.  Change  of  residence  of  stagiaires  is  pronounced  by  the 
academy  inspector. 

The  disciplines  applicable  to  the  public  primary  teaching  force 
are  reprimand,  censure,  revocation,  suspension  for  a  period  not 
exceeding  five  years,  expulsion. 

The  reprimand  is  pronounced  by  the  academy  inspector.  The 
censure  is  given  by  the  academy  inspector  on  cause  shown  by  the 
department  council.    It  may  be  inserted  in  the  official  bulletin. 


52 

The  revocation  is  pronounced  by  the  prefect  on  the  proposition 
of  the  academy  inspector  and  for  cause  shown  by  the  department 
council.  An  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  minister.  Temporary  sus- 
pension and  absolute  expulsion  are  pronounced  by  a  decree  of  the 
department  council. 

An  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  higher  council. 

In  serious  and  urgent  cases  the  academy  inspector  may  suspend 
a  teacher  while  the  investigation  is  pending,  but  said  teacher  does 
not  forfeit  his  salary  for  the  period. 

Public  primary  school  teachers  may  receive  honorable  mention, 
bronze  and  silver  medals. 

One  silver  medal  may  be  given  annually  for  each  group  of  300 
teachers,  and  one  for  each  fraction  exceeding  150. 

One  bronze  medal  may  be  given  for  each  group  of  150  teachers. 

One  honorable  mention  may  be  pronounced  for  each  100  teachers. 

No  one  can  obtain  honorable  mention  who  has  not  at  least  five 
years'  experience  as  titulaire. 

No  one  can  obtain  the  bronze  medal  unless  he  received  honorable 
mention  at  least  two  years  before. 

No  one  can  obtain  the  silver  medal  unless  he  received  the  bronze 
medal  at  least  two  years  before. 

Retired  teachers  may  be  given  the  title  honorary,  if  they  have 
had  twenty-five  years*  active  service  and  hold  at  least  the  bronze 
medal.  They  are  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  pedagogic  confer- 
ences of  their  cantons. 


FIFTEENTH  CHAPTER. 
COMPULSORY  EDUCATION. 

Primary  instruction  comprises : 
Morals  and  civics ; 
Reading  and  writing ; 

The  French  language  and  the  elements  of  French  literature ; 
Geography,  particularly  that  of  France ; 
History,  particularly  French  history  up  to  our  own  day ; 
Common  notions  of  law  and  of  political  economy ; 
The  elements  of  the  natural  sciences,  physics  and  mathematics; 

their  applications  to  agriculture,  hygiene,  the  industrial  arts; 

manual  training  and  use  of  tools  of  the  principal  trades ; 
The  elements  of  drawing,  modeling  and  music ; 
Gymnastics ; 


53 

Military  exercises,  for  the  boys ; 
Needlework,  for  the  ffirls. 

Primary  instruction  is  oblig-atory  for  children  of  both  sexes  from 
6  to  13  years  of  a^^e.  It  may  be  given  in  primary  or  secondary 
schools,  in  public  or  private  schools  or  in  the  family  (by  the  father 
or  by  any  person  whom  he  may  choose). 

A  special  regulation  determines  the  means  of  assuring  primary 
instruction  to  deaf-mutes  and  to  the  blind. 

Public  primary  schools  are  to  be  closed  one  day  in  each  week  in 

addition  to  Sunday,  that  parents  may  give  their  children  religious 

instniction  outside  the  school  buildings,  if  they  desire  to  do  so. 

Religious  instruction  may  not  be  given  in  the  school  buildings  or 

their  dependencies. 

Commissions  Scolaikes. 

In  each  commune  there  is  a  school  committee  {commission  scolaire), 
which  supervises  and  encourages  the  frequentation  of  the  schools. 
It  is  composed  of  the  mayor  or  of  an  assistant  delegated  by  him,  as 
president ;  of  one  of  the  cantonal  delegates  and,  in  communes  com- 
prising several  cantons,  of  as  many  delegates  as  there  are  cantons, 
appointed  by  the  academy  inspector;  of  members  designated  by 
the  municipal  council  in  number  not  exceeding  one-third  the  mem- 
bers of  the  council.  In  case  the  mimicipal  council  fail  to  nominate 
these  membei-s,  they  are  appointed  by  the  prefect. 

At  Paris  and  at  Lyons  there  is  a  commission  scolaire  for  each 
municipal  arrondissement,  presided  over  by  the  mayor  or  by  an  assist- 
ant designated  by  him.  It  is  composed  of  one  of  the  cantonal 
delegates  appointed  by  the  academy  inspector,  and  of  from  three 
to  seven  members  for  each  arrondissement,  designated  by  the  munici- 
pal council. 

The  terms  of  members  appointed  by  the  municipal  council  expire 
with  the  election  of  a  new  council. 

The  primary  inspector  is  a  member  of  all  commissions  scolaires  in 
his  district. 

The  law  of  April  5,  1884,  determines  the  question  of  eligibility  to 
membership  in  a  commission  scolaire. 

The  commission  scolaire  meets  at  least  once  in  three  months  on 
the  call  of  the  president  or  of  the  primary  inspector.  A  majority 
of  the  members  constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business ; 
but  if  after  two  calls  there  is  not  a  quorum,  the  commifKion  scolaire 
may  transact  the  special  business  for  which  it  was  convened  provided 
the  mayor  or  the  assistant  who  takes  his  place,  the  primary  inspector 
and  the  cantonal  delegate  are  present. 


64 

Unexcused  absence  at  three  consecutive  meetings  works  forfeiture 
of  membei-ship. 

A  copy  of  the  proceedings  of  the  commission  scolaire  is  to  be  for- 
warded by  the  president  to  the  primary  inspector  within  three  days 
after  the  meeting. 

The  commission  scolaire  may  not  interfere  with  matters  and 
methods  of  instruction. 

The  primary  inspector,  parents  or  guardians  may  appeal  from 
decisions  of  commissions  scolaires.  The  appeal,  in  the  form  of  a 
simple  letter,  is  to  be  addressed  within  six  days,  to  the  prefect  and 
to  the  pei-sons  interested.  It  may  be  referred  to  the  department 
council  as  a  court  of  last  resort.  Parents  or  guardians  may  be 
represented  by  attorneys  before  the  department  council. 

The  sessions  of  the  department  councils  and  of  co/nmissions  scolaires 
are  not  public. 

Cebtificate  of  Primary  Studies. 

A  certificate  of  primary  studies  (certificat  d'etudes  primaires)  is 
awarded  to  those  children  who  at  the  age  of  11  years  and  upward 
complete  successfully  the  public  examination  prescribed  by  law. 
Holders  of  this  certificate  are  freed  from  the  obligation  to  attend 
school. 

Cantonal  commissions  are  appointed  by  the  rectors,  on  the  propo- 
sition of  the  academy  inspectors,  to  judge  of  the  fitness  of  candidates 
for  the  certificate  of  primary  studies.  These  commissions  meet 
annually  on  the  call  of  the  academy  inspector.  The  primary 
inspector  is  the  presiding  officer.  In  the  examination  of  girls,  some 
members  of  the  commission  must  be  women. 

At  the  time  prescribed  by  the  academy  inspector,  each  teacher 
prepares  a  list  of  the  candidates  in  his  school,  with  name,  date  and 
place  of  birth,  residence  of  the  family  and  signature  of  each  candidate. 

Parents  whose  children  do  not  attend  school  must  furnish  the 
same  information. 

The  list  is  certified  by  the  mayor,  and  transmitted  to  the  primary 
inspector. 

No  candidate  may  be  admitted  who  is  under  11  years  of  age  at  the 
date  of  the  examination. 

The  examination  is  both  written  and  oral. 

The  written  tests  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  members  of  the 
commission,  and  are  private. 

They  include: 

1.  An  exercise  in  dictation  of  not  more  than  fifteen  lines ;  the  end 
of  each  sentence  is  indicated; 


/•  timoHDisscaEir 
Rue  /d^^a^ 


REPUBLIQUE   FRANCAISE 

LIBCRTE,   EOALITE,  nuYEMNITE 


Utile     U     ]{lam 


^evo(r  (/ec/e  /e_^/  .^^^(if^yx/JL 


tC*^  ^^^^^.  ^^a^/^ ^^i^i^^^veS^  a:^l^:<;^t^y^^a^^ 


-t^ 


Exerclse  in  Dictation  by  French  Boy  Ten  Years  of  Ag«. 

The  selection  for  this  exercise  was  chosen  by  me  and  was  dictated  to  the  class  by  the 
teacher,  who  indicatedltunctuatlon.  The  time  allowed  wns  too  short  for  careful  and  neat 
work.  The  other  speolHians  are  ubuut  the  same.  Thin  work  was  done  In  the  middle  cf>urse 
of  a  public  elementary  school  In  P.trl8. 


65 


2.  Two  questions  in  arithmetic,  including  the  metric  system ; 

3.  A  simple  composition  (story,  letter,  etc.). 

Girls  are  to  execute  a  task  in  needlework  under  the  supervision 
of  a  woman  appointed  for  the  purpose. 

The  time  and  credits  allotted  to  each  test  are  g^ven  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


OrthOBraphy*. 
Peamanship . . . 
Arithmetic  — 
OomposltloQ . . . 
Needlework — 


TEST. 


Time. 


1  hour 
Ihour 
1  hour 


Credits. 


10 
10 

10 
10 
10 


Only  those  candidates  are  admitted  to  the  oral  examination  who 
succeed  in  obtaining  at  least  50  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
credits.     Zero  in  any  one  test  involves  rejection. 

The  oral  tests  are  public.  They  take  place  before  a  special  com- 
mission under  the  primary  inspector  as  presiding  officer. 

They  include: 

Reading  with  explanation,  and  the  recitation  of  a  selection  chosen 
from  a  list  presented  by  the  candidate ; 

Questions  in  history  and  geography. 

Ten  credits  are  allotted  to  each  test.  The  oral  examination  is  not 
to  exceed  fifteen  minutes  in  length  for  each  candidate. 

No  one  receives  a  certificate  of  primary  studies  who  fails  to  obtain 
50  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  credits  allotted  to  the  written 
and  oral  examinations. 

On  demand  of  candidates,  linear  drawing  and  agriculture  may  be 
included  in  the  examination. 

Certificates  mention  complementary  subjects  in  which  candidates 
have  attained  50  per  cent. 

A  report  of  the  examination  is  forwarded  to  the  academy  inspector 
who  satisfies  himself  as  to  the  regularity  of  the  proceedings  and 
then  issues  certificates  to  successful  candidates. 

In  1882, 91,153  certificates  of  primary  studies  were  issued ;  in  1887, 
the  corresponding  number  reported  was  144,046. 


*  The  text  Is  read  aloud,  dictated,  then  reread,  and  five  mlaates  are  allowed  candi- 
dates for  corrections. 


66 

Other  Provisions  of  the  Compulsory  Education  Law. 

The  father  or  guardian  of  a  child  subject  to  the  compulsory  educa- 
tion law  must  give  the  mayor  of  the  commune  notice  at  least 
fifteen  days  before  the  opening  of  the  term  whether  the  child  is  to 
receive  instruction  in  the  family,  in  a  public  or  private  school,  indi- 
cating the  school. 

Families  living  near  several  public  schools  may  choose  between 
these  schools,  whether  they  sre  situated  in  their  commune  or  not, 
provided  the  number  of  pupils  does  not  exceed  the  maximum 
authorized  by  the  regulations.  In  cases  of  dispute,  the  department 
council  is  the  final  court  of  appeal. 

The  mayor  prepares  annually,  with  the  assistance  of  the  commis- 
sion scolaire,  a  list  of  all  the  children  from  6  to  13  years  of  age,  and 
advises  parents  and  guardians  of  the  date  of  the  opening  of  the  term. 

In  case  the  parents  or  guardians  fail  to  give  notice  fifteen  days 
before  the  opening  of  the  term,  the  child  is  enrolled  by  the  mayor 
in  one  of  the  public  schools  and  a  notice  is  sent  to  the  parents  or 
guardian. 

Eight  days  before  the  opening  of  the  term,  the  mayor  submits  to 
the  directors  of  public  and  private  schools  a  list  of  the  children  who 
ought  to  attend.    A  copy  of  this  list  is  sent  to  the  primary  inspector. 

When  a  child  leaves  school,  the  parents  or  guardians  must  give 
notice  immediately  to  the  mayor,  indicating  how  the  child  is  to 
receive  instruction  in  the  future. 

Parents  or  guardians  must  inform  the  school-director  of  the  reasons 
for  temporary  absences. 

School-du-ectors  must  keep. a  register,  showing  for  each  class  the 
attendance  of  pupils  registered.  At  the  end  of  each  month  they 
must  send  an  abstract  of  this  register  to  the  mayor,  indicating  the 
number  of  absences  and  the  reasons  therefor. 

Excuses  for  absence  are  submitted  to  the  commission  scolaire.  The 
only  excuses;  deemed  sufficient  are  sickness  of  the  child,  death  of  a 
member  of  the  family,  detentions  resulting  from  imperfect  com- 
munications, accidental  in  character.  Exceptional  circumstances 
meet  due  consideration  before  the  commission. 

Every  director  of  a  private  school  who  fails  to  conform  to  the 
preceding  prescriptions  is  reported  by  the  commission  and  the 
primary  inspector  to  the  department  council.  The  council  may 
then  pronounce  the  following  punishments. 

a.  Warning ;  b.  Censure ;  c.  Suspension  for  a  month  at  the  most, 
and,  in  case  of  repetition  of  the  ofl'ense,  for  three  months  at  most. 

When  a  child  shall  have  been  absent  four  times  in  one  month, 
during  at  least  one-half  day,  without  justification  by  the  commission, 


ExercUe  tn  Reproduction  by  German  Boy  Ten  Year,  or  Age. 

mfvirif a  nnhM^'^'r  'or  comparison  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  specimens  prepared  during 
Z:.'Zt^^tt:^^lTr.^^i::^'''^''^  °-'^  Aix-.a.Chapene.t'^^on.h  thos! 


67 

the  father  or  guardian  is  asked  at^  least  three  days  in  advance  to 
appear  before  the  commission  at  the  mayoralty.  He  is  there 
reminded  of  the  duty  imposed  by  the  law. 

In  case  of  repetition  of  the  oflfense  within  a  twelvemonth,  the 
child  is  posted  for  fifteen  days  or  one  month  at  the  entrance  to 
the  mayoralty,  with  the  full  name  and  standing  of  the  person 
responsible  and  with  an  indication  of  the  charge. 

In  case  of  a  second  repetition  of  the  oflfense,  the  commission  or 
the  primary  inspector  lodge  a  complaint  with  the  police  justice, 
who  pronounces  sentences  according  to  articles  479,  480  sq.  of  the 
penal  code.  Article  463  of  the  same  code  is  applicable.  The  com- 
mission scolaire  may  grant  children  living  with  parents  or  guardians, 
on  reasonable  demand,  a  dispensation  of  three  months  annually, 
exclusive  of  vacations.  If  the  dispensation  exceed  fifteen  days  the 
primary  inspector  must  approve. 

These  dispositions  are  not  applicable  to  children  accompanying 
their  parents  or  guardians  when  absenting  themselves  temporarily 
from  the  commune.  In  this  case  a  verbal  or  written  notice  to  the 
mayor  suffices.  No  child  under  12  can  be  employed  industrially 
unless  in  actual  attendance  on  a  public  or  private  school.  Every 
child  employed  industrially  who  is  under  12  years  of  age  must 
attend  school  during  leisure  hours.  He  must  receive  daily  at  least 
two  hours'  instruction,  if  a  special  school  is  attached  to  the  indus- 
trial establishment.  A  record  of  attendance  is  kept  by  the  teacher 
and  transmitted  weekly  to  the  patron.  No  child  under  15  is  per- 
mitted to  work  more  than  six  hours  a  day,  imless  he  produces  a  cer- 
tificate from  the  teacher  or  primary  inspector,  legalized  by  the 
mayor,  that  he  has  received  elementary  primary  instruction. 

The  commission  scolaire,  with  the  approval  of  the  department  coun- 
cil, may  dispense  children  employed  industrially  and  ha\'ing 
attained  the  age  of  apprenticeship  from  one  of  the  two  classes  of 
the  day.  The  same  dispensation  may  be  granted  to  children 
employed  outside  of  their  families  in  agriculture. 

Children  receiving  instruction  in  the  famUy  must  pass  each  year, 
beginning  with  the  end  of  the  second  year  of  the  compulsory 
period,  an  examination  on  the  work  done  in  public  schools  by 
pupils  of  their  age.  The  forms  and  programs  of  these  examinations 
are  determined  by  ministerial  decrees,  rendered  in  higher  council 
{conseil  superieur). 

The  examining  committee  is  composed  of  the  primary  inspector 
or  his  delegate,  as  chairman ;  a  cantonal  delegate ;  a  person  holding 
a  university  diploma  or  brevet  of  capacity.    The  judges  are  chosen 
by  the  academy  inspector. 
8 


68 

If  the  examination  of  the  child  is  unsatisfactory  and  an  excuse  is 
not  admitted  by  the  committee,  the  parents  or  guardians  must  send 
the  child,  within  eig-ht  days  of  the  notification,  to  a  public  or 
private  school,  and  inform  the  mayor  what  school  has  been  chosen. 
In  case  this  is  not  done  by  the  parent  or  guardian,  it  will  be  done 
through  the  mayoralty. 

School  caisses,  designed  to  encourage  and  facilitate  the  frequenta- 
tion  of  schools  by  recompensing  the  studious  and  assisting  the 
diligent,  are  established  in  each  commune  (Law  of  April  10,  1867). 

The  revenues  of  these  caisses  depend  on  voluntary  subscriptions, 
gfrants  from  the  commune,  the  department  and  the  State.  They 
may  also  be  authorized  by  prefects  to  receive  gifts  and  legacies. 

In  subsidized  communes  where  the  value  of  the  centime  does  not 
exceed  thirty  francs,  the  caisse  is  entitled,  on  the  credit  opened  for 
this  purpose  at  the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  to  a  grant  equal  at 
least  to  the  total  of  the  communal  grants. 

The  distribution  of  succor  is  made  through  the  commission  scolaire. 
Ministerial  decrees,  given  on  demand  of  academy  inspectors  and 
department  councils,  fix  each  year  the  communes  in  which,  owing  to 
insufiicient  school  accommodations,  the  provisions  of  the  Compul- 
sory Education  Act  can  not  be  strictly  enforced.  The  minister 
reports  these  communes  annually  to  the  chambres. 

An  examination  of  the  statistics  relating  to  compulsory  education 
shows  that  France  has  no  reason  to  blush  as  regards  her  school 
accommodations.  Would  that  we  were  able  to  say  the  same  for 
New  York.  As  we  think,  however,  of  the  thousands  of  children  who 
are  shut  out  of  school  entirely  owing  to  the  lack  of  accommodations, 
we  are  far  from  satisfied  with  the  results  of  our  school  work.* 


SIXTEENTH  CHAPTEK. 
EXPENSES  OF  PUBLIC  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION  AND  SALARIES. 
Law  of  July  19,  1889. 
Art.  1. —  The  ordinary  expenses  of  public  primary  instruction  are 
paid  by  the  State,  the  departments  and  the  communes. 
Art.  2. —  The  Stale  pays: 

a.   The  salaries  of  employes  in  public  elementary  schools  and 
ecoles  matemelles  ; 

*  We  should  have  statistics  showlnK  the  number  of  children  In  New  York  between  6 
and  13  years  of  age,  and  the  reelstration  and  attendance  of  these  childi  en  In  elementary 
Bchools.  Comparisons  based  on  these  figures  would  afford  a  strong  arKument  for  the 
enactment  of  an  effective  compulsory  education  law. 


59 

h.  The  salaries  of  employes  in  upper  primary  schools  and  manual 
training'  schools ; 

c.  The  supplements  referred  to  in  articles  8  and  9 ; 

d.  The  salaries  of  employes  in  normal  schools ; 

e.  The  salaries  of  administrative  and  supervising  officers ; 

f.  Traveling  expenses  of  supervising  officers ; 

g.  The  maintenance  of  students  in  normal  schools  and  other 
expenses  of  these  schools  not  specially  provided  for ; 

h.  The  allowance  (twenty  dollars)  for  the  silver  medal. 

Art.  3. —  The  departments  pay  : 

a.  The  allowance  of  at  least  forty  dollars  to  primary  inspectors ; 

h.  The  maintenance  of  normal  school  buildings ; 

c.  The  maintenance  of  the  furniture  and  teaching-  supplies  of  nor- 
mal schools ; 

d.  The  rent  and  maintenance  of  the  office  and  furniture  for  the 
department  service  of  public  instruction  ; 

e.  The  office  expenses  of  the  academy  inspector ; 

f.  The  cost  of  books  and  pamphlets  used  by  the  cantonal  deleg^a- 
tions  and  the  academic  administration ; 

g.  The  allowances  made  to  foremen,  assistants  and  workmen 
charged  by  the  departments  with  agricultural,  commercial  or  indus- 
trial instruction  in  all  primary  schools  and  in  technical  schools  ruled 
by  the  law  of  December  11,  1880. 

Art.  4. — The  communes  pay  : 

a.  The  allowance  for  lodg-ings  referred  to  in  article  12. 

b.  The  maintenance  and  location  of  primary  school  buildings ;  the 
lodgings  of  teachers  or  the  allowances  therefor ; 

c.  The  cost  of  heating  and  lighting  the  primary  schools ; 

d.  The  wages  of  servants  in  public  ecoles  mcUemelles,  and  (if  there 
be  any)  in  other  public  primary  schools ; 

e.  The  acquisition,  maintenance  and  replacement  of  school  fur- 
niture and  teaching  supplies ; 

/.  The  cost  of  registers,  books  and  pamphlets  used  in  the  schools ; 

g.  The  allowances  made  to  foremen,  assistants  and  workmen 
charged  by  the  communes  with  agricultural,  commercial  or  indus- 
trial instniction  in  primary  schools  of  all  grades  and  in  technical 
schools  ruled  by  the  law  of  December  11,  1880. 

Ai't.  5. — Upper  primary  schools  and  complementary  courses  cease 
to  be  maintained  by  the  State  if  the  total  number  of  pupils  for  three 
consecutive  years  is  less  than  fifteen  for  each  year  of  the  course  in 
upper  primaiy  schools,  and  twelve  for  each  year  of  the  course  in 
the  cours  complemenimres. 


60 


SALARIES. 
Citations  from  the  Law  of  July  19,  1889. 

Art.  6.  —  Male  and  female  teachers  are  divided  into  stagiaires  and 
titulaires* 

Art.  7.  —  The  titulaires  are  divided  into  five  classes.  The  salaries 
are  fixed  as  follows : 


Males. 

Females. 

Fifth  class 

$200 
240 
300 
860 
400 

t200 

Fourth  class.... 

340 

Third  class 

380 

Second  class 

800 

First  class 

830 

Art.  8.  —  Titulaires  in  charg-e  of  a  school  with  more  than  two  classes 
receive  a  supplement  of  forty  dollars,  which  is  increased  to  eighty- 
dollars  if  the  school  have  more  than  four  classes. 

Art.  9.  —  In  schools  with  a  complementary  course,  the  teacher  in 
charge  of  the  same  receives  a  supplement  of  forty  dollars. 

Art.  10. — In  addition  to  salary,  titulaires  are  entitled  to  lodgings 
or  to  an  allowance  therefor,  as  set  forth  under  article  12. 

Art.  11.  —  Stagiaires,  male  and  female,  receive  a  salary  of  $160  and 
lodgings,  or  an  allowance  therefor,  as  set  forth  under  article  12. 

Art.  12.  —  The  allowance  for  lodgings  for  teachers  referred  to  in 
articles  8,  9,  14  and  15  is  determined  according  to  the  following 
table : 

Close  population  of  locality.  Allowance. 

Less  than  l.ooo,  Itchefs-lieux;  1,000  to  3,000,  if  not $20 

8,001  to  9,000 40 

9,001  to  12.000 80 

13.001  to  18,000 80 

18,001  to  36.000 100 

35,001  to  60.000 120 

60,001  to  100.000 140 

Above  100.000 ;..  160 

In  the  olty  of  Paris 400 

For  all  other  titulaires  the  allowances  are  one-half  the  above  figures. 
The  allowances  of  stagiaires  are  one-quarter  the  above  figures. 


'Stagiaires  are  on  probation  and  are  appointed  by  the  academy  inspectors.  They 
oonstltate  about  20  per  cent  of  the  teaching  force.  Titulaires  are  in  full  standing  and 
are  appointed  by  the  prefects  from  lists  prepared  by  the  department  councils. 


61 

In  cities  with  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  and  in  the  communes 
of  the  department  of  the  Seine,  the  allowance  may  be  increased.  * 

Art.  VA. —  Directors,  directresses  and  assistants  in  upper  primary 
schools;  directors  and  professors  of  normal  schools;  normal  school 
stewards  and  primajy  inspectors  are  divided  into  five  classes. 

Art.  14. — The  salaries  of  directors  and  directresses  of  upper  pri- 
mary schools  are  fixed  as  follows : 

Fifth  class Wa 

Fourth  class 400 

Third  class 440 

Second  class 600 

First  class  B<» 

They  receive  in  addition  lodgings  or  the  allowance  therefor  as 
provided  in  article  12. 

Art.  15. — The  salaries  of  assistants  in  upper  primary  schools  are 
fixed  as  follows : 

Fifth  class W20 

Fourth  class a«0 

Third  class 830 

Second  class 380 

First  class MO 

In  addition  lodgings  or  allowance  therefor  as  set  forth  in  article  12. 

Special  teachere  receive  an  allowance  of  from  ten  dollars  to  twenty 
dollars  a  year  for  each  hour  of  instruction  per  week. 

Art.  16. — In  the  national  schools  of  upper  primary  and  technical 
instruction,  the  salaries  of  each  class  are  $100  more  than  those  paid 
in  noimal  schools  for  males. 

Art.  17. — The  salaries  of  directors  and  directresses  of  normal 
schools  are  fixed  as  follows : 


Directors. 

Directresses. 

Fifth  class 

roo 

800 
900 

1.000 
1,100 

t600 

Fourth  class » 

700 

Third  class 

800' 

Second  class 

900 

First  class 

1,000 

In  Paris  the  salary  of  the  director  is  from  $1,400  to  $2,000 ;  of  the 
directress,  from  $1,200  to  $1,800. 


•  October  26,  I89i.  ihe  educational  congress  ( Congrea  de  la  ligue  de  V enseignemeut)  adopted 
resolutions  demandins  a  return  to  the  scale  of  salaries  In  force  previous  to  1889.  and  an 
equal  allowance  for  lodsluKS  for  all  teachers,  after  January  1. 1892. 


62 

Art.  18. — The  salaries  of  normal  school  professors  are  fixed  as 
follows : 


Males. 

Females. 

Fifth  class 

$480 
620 
660 
620 
680 

$440 

Fourth  class 

480 

Third  class 

520 

Second  class 

660 

First  class 

600 

Male  and  female  teachers  not  holding-  the  certificate  of  capacity 
for  a  professorship  receive  salaries  of  $400  and  $360  respectively. 

All  salaries  given  above  are  eighty  dollars  less  if  teachers  are 
odged  and  fed  in  the  schools. 

Art.  19.  —  Salaries  of  teachers  and  other  employes  in  advanced 
normal  schools  {ecoles  normales  superieures  d'enseignement  primaire)  are 
fixed  by  a  special  regulation. 

Art.  20.  —  Directors,  directresses  and  assistants  in  upper  primary 
schools,  holding  the  certificate  of  capacity  for  a  professorship  in 
normal  schools,  receive  an  allowance  of  $100. 

Art.  21.  —  In  normal  schools  Avith  less  than  sixty  students,  the 
^duties  of  steward  are  confided  to  one  of  the  teachers,  who  receives 
an  allowance  of  $100  therefor. 

In  normal  schools  with  more  than  sixty  students,  the  stewards 
give  no  instruction  save  in  writing  and  book-keeping.  Their  salaries 
are  fixed  as  follows : 

Fifth  class $360 

Fourth  class 400 

Third  class 440 

Second  class 600 

Flrstclass 660 

In  addition,  they  are  entitled  to  lodgings. 

Art.  22. —  The  salaries  of  primary  inspectors  are  fixed  as  follows : 

Fifth  class $800 

Fourth  class 700 

Third  class 800 

Second  class 900 

First  class l.ooo 


In  the  department  of  the  Seine,  the  salaries  are  $1,200,  $1,300, 
$1,400,  $1,500  and  $1,600. 


63 

Primary  inspectresses  may  be  named  under  the  same  conditions 
and  in  the  same  form  as  the  inspectors. 

Art.  23. —  In  addition  to  the  salaries  as  above,  primary  inspectors 
are  entitled  to  a  department  allowance  of  at  least  forty  dollars. 

Art.  24. —  Promotion  is  from  class  to  class.  Teachers  of  the  fifth 
and  fourth  classes  may  not  be  promoted  to  a  higher  class  without  an 
experience  of  five  years  in  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 

Promotion  to  the  second  and  first  class  requires  the  brevet  super- 
ieur,  and  at  least  three  years'  experience  in  the  class  next  below. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  approximate  equalization  of  wages . 
paid  male  and  female  teachers.    In  many  grades  of  work,  as  will  be 
seen,  there  is  absolutely  no  distinction  made  between  male  and 
female  teachers. 

The  table  of  allowances  made  for  lodgings  illustrates  the  fact  that 
city  life  is  more  expensive  than  country  life. 


SEVENTEENTH  CHAPTER. 

MILITARY  SERVICE.* 

Extracts  from  the  Law  of  July  19,  1889. 

Art.    1. —  Every  Frenchman  is  subject  to  military  service. 

Art.  23. —  The  following  persons  are  dismissed  in  times  of  peace 
after  one  year's  military  service : 

Young  men  under  bonds  to  serve  ten  years  in  public  instruction, 
in  national  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  or  blind. 

Lay  teachers,  novices  and  members  of  religious  bodies  devoted  to 
instruction  which  is  of  public  utility,  and  who  are  under  bonds  to 
serve  ten  years  in  the  French  schools  of  the  Orient  and  of  Africa. 

All  persons  above  enumerated  are  recalled  for  four  weeks  during 
the  year  preceding  their  passage  to  the  reserve  of  the  active  army; 
They  then  follow  the  lot  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 

Art.  24. —  Young  men  who  do  not  succeed  in  finding  an  employ- 
ment as  teachers  during  the  year  following  their  year  of  military 
service,  or  who  cease  to  be  employed  at  the  expiration  of  the  time ; 
young  men  who,  in  the  year  of  military  service,  have  failed  to  meet 
the  conditions  established  by  the  Minister  of  War  must  serve  the 
two  yeai-s  from  which  they  have  been  exempted. 

•We  publish  only  certain  extracts  relative  to  persons  connected  with   primary 
instruction. 


64 

Art.  25. —  Wlien  the  causes  for  which  exemption  have  been  made 
cease  to  operate,  the  young  men  who  have  been  exempted  become 
subject  to  all  the  obligations  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 

They  may  marry  without  authorization. 

Art.  26. — A  list  of  the  young  men  of  each  department,  exempted 
under  the  law,  is  published  in  the  Bulletin  administratif,  and 
the  names  of  persons  exempted  in  each  commune  are  posted  at  the 
entrance  to  the  mayoralty.  In  case  of  war,  they  are  summoned  to 
march  with  the  men  of  their  class. 

Art.  51. — In  case  of  mobilization,  only  those  specified  in  official 
lists  are  freed  from  immediate  military  service. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

American  visitors  to  French  schools  for  boys  will  note  at  once  the 
atmosphere  of  war  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 

The  target  practice  and  drill  of  the  school  battalions,  and  the  mili- 
tary exercises  in  general,  may  aid  the  physical  development  of  the 
pupils,  but  the  earnestness  of  the  instruction  suggests  unpleasant 
possibilities. 

EIGHTEENTH  CHAPTEK. 

PENSIONS.* 

Primary  inspectors ;  directresses  and  assistants  in  normal  schools ; 
communal  teachers  and  assistants ;  communal  directresses  of  salles 
<V  asile  {ecoles  maternelles  and  classes  en/antines)  are  among  the 
employes  entitled  to  pensions  under  the  law  of  June  9,  1853. 

The  amount  of  the  pension  is  not  to  be  less  than  $120  for  a  male 
teacher  and  $100  for  a  female  teacher.  This  minimum  does  not 
apply  to  those  pensioned  exceptionally  owing  to  infirmities. 

The  amount  of  the  pension  is  based  on  the  mean  of  the  salar}'  and 
emoluments  for  the  six  years  during  which  these  figures  were  the 
greatest  (Law  of  August  17,  1876).  It  is  never  to  exceed  three- 
quarters  of  the  average  salary  of  these  years. 

The  right  to  a  pension  is  acquired  at  60  years  of  age  and  after 
thirty  years'  service.  Persons  connected  with  primary  instruction 
acquire  this  right  at  55  years  of  age  and  after  twenty  five  years' 
ser^ice,  provided  they  have  passed  fifteen  years  in  what  is  called 
the  partie  active. 

*  Civil  pensions  and  th«  law  of  1889  relative  to  salaries  have  been  amoDK  the  subjects 
of  general  di8cus!>ion  In  France  In  1891.  Several  projects  have  been  proposed  relative 
to  civil  pen&ions,  includinK  the  proposition  of  M-  Camille  Crousset  to  abolish  them 
entirely. 


65 

The  years  passed  at  the  uormal  schools  after  the  a<?e  of  20  are 
inchided  in  making  up  the  years  of  service. 

The  law  of  1853  provides  for  pensions  in  special  cases,  including 
those  paid  widows  of  persons  who  die  under  cei'tain  conditions  in 
the  public  service. 

NINETEENTH  CHAPTEB. 

fiCOLES  MA.TERNELLES  AND  CLASSES  ENFANTINES. 

General  Ohoanization. 

The  ecoles  maternelles  are  Kindergarten  in  which  children  of  both 
sexes,  from  2  to  6  years  of  age,  receive  together  the  care  which 
their  physical,  moral  and  intellectual  development  demand. 

The  classes  enfantines,  annexed  to  a  lower  primary  school  or  to  an 
icole  maternelle,  are  for  children  of  both  sexes  from  4  to  7  years  of 
age.  These  infant  classes  form  the  mean  between  the  ecoU  maiemeUe 
and  the  primary  school.  In  addition  to  the  training  of  the  ecole 
maternelle,  children  receive  primary  instruction. 

No  child  is  received  in  an  ecole  maternelle  without  a  certificate  of 
admission,  signed  by  the  mayor,  and  a  duly  legalized  medical  cer- 
tificate, establishing  the  fact  that  he  has  been  vaccinated  and  has 
no  contagious  disease. 

The  training  in  the  ecoles  maiernelles  and  classts  enfantines  includes : 

a.  Games,  calisthenics  with  musical  accompaniment ; 

6.  Manual  exercises ; 

c.  First  principles  of  moral  education ; 

d.  Knowledge  of  common  things ; 

e.  Language  exercises ; 

/.  Elements  of  drawing,  reading,  writing  and  number. 

The  regulations  touching  the  building  and  furnishing  of  the  ecoles 
maternelles  are  set  forth  below  under  a  special  head  (page  72). 

No  one  can  be  appointed  a  directress  of  an  ecole  maternelle  who 
does  not  hold  the  certifical  d'aptitude  pedagogique  and  has  not  attained 
the  age  of  25  with  two  years'  experience  in  public  or  private  ecoles 
maternelles. 

The  children  of  public  ecoles  maternelles  are  divided  into  two 
sections  according  to  age  and  development. 

If  the  average  attendance  exceeds  fifty,  the  directress  has  an  assist- 
ant.   The  du-ectress  and  assistant  alternate  in  the  two  divisions. 

A  femme  de  service  is  attached  to  each  ecole  maternelle.     This  ser- 
vant is  appointed  and  discharged  by  the  directress,  with  the  consent 
of  the  mayor.    She  is  paid  by  the  commune. 
9 


66 

The  department  council  in  each  department  issues  regulations  for 
the  public  Scales  mcUemelles,  following  the  plan  of  the  decree  of  the 
minister  in  higher  council. 

In  each  commune  where  there  is  an  ecole  maternelle,  there 
may  be  one  or  several  committees  of  patronesses,  presided  over  by 
the  mayor.  The  members  of  these  committees  are  appointed  by  the 
academy  inspector,  with  the  advice  of  the  mayor.  The  duties  of 
these  committees  are  to  watch  over  the  sanitary  regulations,  the 
proper  care  of  the  establishment  and  the  use  of  funds  or  gif  is  in 
favor  of  the  children. 

A  physician  appointed  by  the  mayor  visits  once  a  week  the  ecoles 
maternelles,  entering  his  observations  on  a  register  kept  for  the 
purpose. 

After  an  absence  due  to  sickness,  no  child  is  readmitted  without  a 
medical  certificate  of  complete  recovery. 

The  directress  reports  annually  in  detail  all  matters  relating  to 
the  establishment.  This  report  is  submitted  to  the  department 
inspectress,  or  the  primary  inspector. 

Without  special  permission  of  the  primary  inspector,  children 
may  not  pass  from  the  ecole  maternelle  or  classe  enfantine  to  the  primary 
school,  except  in  October,  in  January  and  at  Easter.  No  ecole  mater- 
nelle may  receive  more  than  150  pupils  without  a  special  authoriza- 
tion from  the  academy  inspector. 

Ecoles  maiemelles  are  open  from  March  1  to  November  1,  from 
7  A.  M.  to  7  P.  M.,  from  November  1  to  March  1  from  8  a.  m.  to  6  P.  m. 
These  hours  may  be  modified  according  to  local  needs  by  the  acad- 
emy inspector  on  demand  of  the  mayor. 

Ecoles  maternelles  may  not  be  closed  except  Sundays ;  January  1st 
and  2d,  Ascension  day;  Monday  of  Whitsuntide;  the  day  of  the 
Assumption ;  All  Saints'  day ;  Christmas  day ;  the  day  of  the 
national /ete;  from  Thursday  before  Easter  to  Thursday  after  Easter ; 
the  first  fortnight  in  August. 

Directresses  of  ecoles  maternelles,  with  a  single  class,  may  not 
take  other  vacations.  In  ecoles  maternelles,  with  several  classes,  a 
vacation  of  one  month  is  accorded  annually  to  the  directress  or 
assistant  alternately. 

Parents  neglecting  to  call  for  their  childreti  according  to  the 
rules  are  warned,  and,  if  the  neglect  occurs  again,  the  children  are  sent 
home  to  stay.  This  may  not  be  done,  however,  except  by  the 
academy  inspector  on  proposal  of  the  directress  and  with  consent 
of  the  committee  of  patronage.  Children  may  take  the  midday 
meal  at  the  school. 


67 

The  ecole  malerneUe  is  to  be  kept  iu  a  constant  state  of  cleanliness 
and  salubrity.  It  is  to  be  swept  and  scrubbed  every  day.  The  air 
is  to  be  frequently  renewed. 

On  arrival  of  the  children  at  the  school,  the  directress  is  to 
assure  herself  of  their  state  of  health  and  cleanliness.  She  is  to 
exact  that  each  be  provided  with  a  handkerchief,  and  that  the  lunch 
basket  contain,  in  addition  to  the  food,  a  cover  and  a  napkin. 

It  is  an  interesting-  sight  to  see  all  these  little  ones  drawn  up  in 
line  undergoing  the  tour  of  inspection.  Every  child  with  dirty 
face  or  hands  is  whisked  off  at  once  to  be  scrubbed.  Some  of  the 
bath-rooms  are  beautifully  finished  and  furnished.  They  look  as  if 
they  might  have  been  made  for  the  court  of  the  King-  of  Lilliput. 

Before  entering  the  exercise-hall  the  children  are  conducted  to 
privies,  where  they  are  always  watched  by  the  <  irectress  and  assistant. 

Good  marks,  pictures  and  plaything's  are  given  as  rewards. 

At  the  end  of  each  month  the  cards  for  good  marks  are  exchanged 
for  pictures  and  playthings.  The  distribution  of  prizes  is  not 
allowed. 

The  only  punishments  permitted  are  deprivation  for  a  short  time 
of  the  tasks  and  common  games ;  recall  of  the  cards  for  good  marks. 

Directresses  and  assistants  may  not  receive  presents  from  the 
pupils  or  parents. 

Petitions,  subscriptions  and  lotteries  are  not  allowed. 

No  species  of  domestic  animals  are  allowed  in  the  parts  of  schools 
reserved  for  the  children. 

It  is  forbidden  to  overburden  the  memory  of  children  with  dia- 
logues and  dramatic  scenes  for  public  celebrations, 

PEDAGOGIC  ORGANIZATION. 

In  each  public  Scole  maternelle  the  gradation  of  the  pu|)ils  is 
made  annually,  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  primary  schools, 
by  the  directress  under  the  control  of  the  department  inspectress,  or 
the  primary  inspector. 

The  weekly  time-table  for  each  Scole  maternelle  is  arranged  by  the 
directress,  ^vith  the  approval  of  the  department  inspectress,  or  of 
the  primary  inspector. 

Object. —  The  object  of  the  Scole  maternelle  is  the  commencement  of 
physical,  moral  and  intellectual  education. 

The  ecole  maternelle  is  not  a  school  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word.  It  forms  the  passage  from  the  family  <o  the  school.  It  pre- 
serves the  affection  and  indulgent  gentleness  of  the  family,  and 
at  the  same  time  initiates  into  the  work  and  regularity  of  the  school 


68 

The  success  of  the  directress  is  not  determined  by  the  knowledge 
communicated,  by  the  mean  of  instruction,  by  the  number  and  dura- 
tion of  the  tasks ;  but  by  the  ensemble  of  good  influences  to  which  the 
child  is  subjected,  by  the  pleasure  he  learns  to  take  in  school,  by  the 
habits  of  order,  cleanliness,  politeness,*  attention,  obedience  and 
mental  activity  which  he  acquires  in  playing. 

Directresses  should  not  endeavor  to  send  to  the  primary  school 
children  already  far  advanced  in  their  instruction.  They  should  aim 
to  send  children  prepared  to  receive  instruction.  All  the  exercises 
should  follow  this  general  principle.  They  should  aid  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  faculties  of  the  child  without  fatigue,  without  con- 
straint, without  excessive  application.  They  are  intended  to  make  him 
love  school  and  to  give  him  in  early  life  a  taste  for  work,  never  impos- 
ing tasks  incompatible  with  the  feebleness  and  mobility  of  early  child- 
hood. The  end  to  attain,  in  taking  into  account  the  different  tempera- 
ments, the  precocity  of  some  and  the  dullness  of  others,  is  not  that  all 
should  attain  the  same  knowledge  of  reading,  writing  and  number ;  but 
that  they  know  well  the  little  they  know ;  that  they  love  their  tasks, 
their  games,  their  lessons ;  that  they  acquire  no  distaste  for  their 
first  school  exercises  which  become  so  repugnant  if  the  patience, 
vivacity  and  ingenious  affection  of  the  mistress  find  no  means  to 
vary  them. 

Good  health;  hearing,  sight  and  touch,  already  exercised  by  a  grad- 
uated succession  of  those  Httle  games  and  little  experiences  which  aid 
in  educating  the  senses ;  childish  ideas,  but  plain  and  clear,  touching 
the  first  elements  of  that  which  is  to  be  later  primary  instruction ;  a 
foundation  of  habits  and  dispositions  on  which  the  school  may  lean 
later  in  giving  regular  instruction;  taste  for  gymnastics,  singing,  draw- 
ing, pictures,  recitals ;  eagerness  in  listening,  in  seeing,  in  observ- 
ing, in  imitating,  in  questioning,  in  answering ;  a  certain  faculty  of 
attention,  cherished  by  obedience,  confidence  and  good  humor ;  the 
intelligence  awakened  and  the  soul  opened  to  all  good  moral  impres- 

*Both  in  France  and  Germany  teachers  pay  careful  attention  to  the  manners  of  the 
pupils.  They  are  Invariably  polite.  In  France,  upon  the  entrance  of  a  stranger,  the  boys 
rise  at  once  and  give  him  the  military  balute,  the  girls  rise  and  bow.  They  always  remain 
standing  until  asked  to  take  their  seats.  In  the  Kindergarten  (ecoles  mate7-neUes)  polite- 
ness often  takes  a  still  more  exaggerated  form  of  salute.  The  pupils  await  standing  the 
signal  of  the  teacher  and  then  throw  kisses  toward  the  stranger.  This  is  somewhat 
embarrassing,  as  the  teacher  is  apt  to  watch  the  guest  in  order  to  see  if  all  these  kisses 
are  wafted  back  as  gracefully  as  they  are  sent. 

But  the  politeness  of  these  school  children  is  not  confined  to  the  class-room.  After 
having  visited  many  schools  in  Germany  and  France,  I  used  to  meet  quite  often  some 
of  I  he  boys  upon  the  street.  They  invariably  removed  their  hats.  Not  once  In  the  course 
of  my  visitations  in  either  country  did  I  note  a  case  of  rudeness  or  vulgarity. 

I  am  compelled  to  admit  that  the  lessons  In  manners  are  much  more  effective  In 
French  and  .German  schools  than  In  our  own. 


69 

flions :  these  oiig-ht  to  be  the  effects  and  results  of  the  years  at  the 
ecole  matemelle.  If  the  child  has  this  preparation  for  the  primary 
school,  a  few  pages  more  or  less  of  the  primary  syllabus  are  of  little 
importance. 

Method. — The  method  is  indicated  by  the  name  of  the  establish- 
ment. It  consists  in  imitating  as  closely  as  possible  the  form  of 
training  adopted  by  an  intelligent  and  devoted  mother. 

The  ecole  matemelle  should  not  develop  one  order  of  faculties  at  the 
expense  of  the  others.  All  should  be  developed  in  harmony.  Special 
methods  founded  on  exclusive  and  artificial  systems  are  not  advis- 
able. The  simplest  exercises  of  all  methods  should  be  chosen  in 
order  to  form  a  course  which  will  minister  to  the  different  needs  of 
the  little  child  and  bring  all  his  faculties  into  play.  The  exercises 
should  have  a  gi-eat  variety.  Object  lessons,  conversation,  singing^ 
the  first  attempts  at  drawing,  reading,  number  and  recitation  should 
divide  the  time  with  physical  exercises,  games  and  gymnastics. 
This  method  is  essentially  natural,  familiar,  always  open  to  progress, 
and  always  susceptible  of  development  and  reformation. 

Division  of  the  course. — The  games  are  divided  into  those  for  the 
prSau  and  those  for  the  cour.  Separate  playthings  are  furnished  for 
each. 

Musical  instruction  comprises  songs  in  unison  and  in  two  parts 
which  accompany  the  games  and  evolutions.  The  mistress  uses  a 
tuning-fork. 

The  manual  exercises  consist  in  plaiting,  weaving,  folding,  stitch- 
ing, cutting,  knitting,  bead-stringing,  and  the  performance  of  tasks 
with  cardboard,  straws,  sand,  etc.  Needlework  and  all  other  tasks 
of  a  nature  to  fatigue  the  children  are  forbidden. 

The  first  principles  of  moral  training  are  given  in  the  form  of 
familiar  convei'sation,  recitals  and  songs  destined  to  inspire  a  sense 
of  duty  toward  the  family,  France  and  God.  This  instruction  must 
not  be  of  a- confessional  character. 

The  common  information  {connaissances  usuelles)  includes  elemen- 
tary notions  of  clothing,  food  and  dwelling;  of  man,  animals,  plants 
and  rocks ,  of  color  and  form,  the  division  of  time,  the  seasons ;  of 
the  cardinal  points,  of  France  and  the  principEd  countries  of  the 
earth.  This  instruction  is  given  with  the  aid  of  objects,  and  repre- 
sentations of  objects. 

Language  work,  connected  with  all  exercises,  aims  to  accustom 
the  children  to  express  their  ideas  simply  and  con-ectly,  and  to 
increase  their  vocabularies  according  to  the  development  of  their 
intelligence  and  of  their  needs. 


70 


The  elements  of  drawing  comprise, — 

a.  Combinations  of  lines  by  use  of  sticks,  etc. ;  reproduction  of 
these  combinations  on  the  slate,  and  of  easy  drawings  of  the  mis- 
tress on  the  blackboard. 

6.  Reproduction  on  slate  and  paper  of  common  objects,  and  of 
very  simple  ornaments. 

Instruction  in  reading  embraces  only  usual  words  and  simple 
phrases.     Children  should  use  movable  letters  in  learning  to  read. 

Instruction  in  both  reading  and  writing  is  given  only  to  the  chil- 
dren of  the  first  section. 

The  elements  of  number  include, — 

a.  The  formation  and  representation  of  the  numbers  from  one  to 
ten,  and  from  ten  to  100  by  the  aid  of  sticks,  pebbles,  coin,  common 
measures,  etc.,  placed  in  the  hands  of  pupils. 

6.  The  four  operations  applied  to  the  first  hundred  ^always  with 
the  aid  of  objects. 

c.  The  representation  of  the  first  hundred  by  figures. 

Children  are  exercised  in  mental  calculation  on  all  the  numbers 
studied. 

The  recitals  or  stories,  based  as  much  as  possible  on  objects  or 
representations  of  objects,  should  embrace  scenes  in  child-life. 
Anecdotes,  descriptions,  biographic  sketches  and  accounts  of  travel 
should  give  an  idea  of  and  encourage  a  love  for  France.  The  intel- 
lectual exercises  and  the  manual  should  alternate,  and  should  be 
separated  by  songs  and  games. 

The  following  special  program  illustrates  the  monthly  division  of 
object  lessons  in  the  first  section.  For  full  course,  see  pages  98-109, 
under  Infant  course. 

OCTOBEK. 


Object  Lessons. 

Mecitals,  conversations,  questions,  showing 
the  objects  to  the  children  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. 

Vintage.— Ylne,  grape,  wine.— Vat,  capk, 
bottle,  srlass,  stopper,  liter.  —  Apple, 
elder.—  Hops,  beer. 


Deawing. 
Drawings  made  by  mistress  on  blackboard.— 

Pupils  reproduce  only  those   whicJi    are 

simple  enough  to  find  a  place  in  the  course 

below. 
Grape,  leaf,  wine-press,  vat,  cask,  bottle, 

glass,  funnel,  liter. 

SONOS  AND  OAMBS. 

{To  be  executed  by  the  chidren.)    Autumn 
(Delbruck).— The  Cooper. 


November. 


Object  Lessons. 
Ploughing.— Tlough.-  Sowlnsr. 
X7(7'i<m(7.— Candle,  wax- candle,  lamp,  gas. 
Light-house. 


Deawing. 
Plough-share,  harrow. 
Candle-stick,    lamp,    gas-burner,    light- 
house. 

BoNQs  AND  Games. 

Labor.— Sowing  fMme.  Pape-Carpantier). 


71 


December. 


Object  Lessons. 
HeatlnK.  —  Gold.  snow.  Ice,  avalanches ; 
Switzerland,  Alps :  skates,  sleiRbs.  — 
Thermometers.  —  Stove,  chimneys.  — 
Wood,  coal.  matches.  —  Ohllblains, 
colds.— Fireside,  family.        « 


n>BAWIHO. 

Skate,  sleish,  thermometer,  stove,  chim- 
ney,  bellows,  shovel,  tongs,  flre-pump. 

SONOS  AND  OaJUES. 

Little  Chimney-sweeper  (Mme.  Pape-Car- 
pantler).— Fire  (Delbruck). 


January. 


Objbcti  Lkssons. 


Nmt)  F(Por.— Movement  of  the  earth  around 
the  sun;  congratulations;  New  Year 
Kifts,  charity;  oranges,  chestnuts. 

Cto</u"n<7.— Furs,  rues,  quilts,  woolen,  cot- 
ton, sheets,  flannel,  weaving,  spinning, 
dyeing,  needies,  pins. 


Dbawino. 


Sphere;  oranges,  chestnuts;  money-box. 
scissors,  tape-line. 

SONOS  AND  QaHBS. 

Winter.— Happy  New  Year  (Delbruck). 
Little  Knitters  (Delcasso). 


February. 


Object  Lessons. 

Human  6odj/.  —  Principal  organs  of  the 
senses. 

^ood.— Meats  and  drinks ;  baker,  butcher, 
fruiterer,  grocer;  hunger,  appetite,  indi- 
gestion. 


Dbawino. 

Eye.  ear,  nose,  hand ;  kitchen  range,8auce- 
pan,  stove,  kettle,  pot,  gridiron. 

SONOS  AND  QAMBS. 

Qymnastics  (Lain^). 
Bread  (Delbruck), 


March. 


Object  Lessons. 
Dwelling.— Wood,  stone,  iron,  brick;  slate, 
plaster,  lime,  tile,  thatch,  zinc ;  different 
industries. 

JBees.— Hive,  cells,  wax,  honey 


Dbawino. 
House,  window,  door:  table,  bed;  chair, 
wardrobe,  bureau,  wall,  layers  of  stone, 
of  brick :  plan  of  a  house,  frame-work ; 
hammer,  saw,  pincers,  square,  compass, 
plumb-line,  hod,  trowel. 

SONOS  AND  OaKES. 

Little  Workmen. 

Bees'  Patrol  (Mme.  Pape-Carpantler). 


April. 


Object  Lessons. 

Vegetation.— Qr&lns,  roots,  stems,  flowers, 
etc. 

Insects.  — "May  beetle,  caterpillar,  silk- 
worm. 

Birds'  n«8(s.— Services  the  birds  render 
us;  swallows. 


Dbawino. 
Flowers,  leaves,  beans,  peas,  potatoes. 

SoNOS  AND  Games. 
Spring  (Delbruck). 
Silkworm  (Mme.  Pape-Garpantier). 


Mat. 


Object  Lessons. 
Wafer.— Brook,  stream,   river,   sea,  cold 

baths,  swimming. 
Fishing.—  Salt  and  fresh  water  flsh. 
Washing.—  Soap,  cleanliness. 


Dbawino. 
Bath-tub. 

Boat,  flsh-hook.  net  line,  flsh. 
Bucket,  pump,   fountain,  well,  washing- 
beater. 

SoNos  AND  Games. 


Vive    Veau !    (Delbruck). 
Provence. 


Bourgeois    of 


72 


Object  Lkbbons. 
Farm,—  Haymaklnflr.—  Horee,    ass.    shep- 
berd-doK,  wolf,   sheep,    piss,    turkeys, 
hens,  Keese,    ducks,    piKeons.— Dairy, 
milk,  butter,  cheese. 


June. 

Dbawino. 
Pan,  chum,  milk-can. 


SONQS  AND  GAMBS. 

Little  Shepherd. 
Haymaking  (Delcasso). 


July. 


Object  Lessons. 
StorTn.— LiKhtnins:.   thunder,  hall,  wind, 

lljthtnlnK-rod,  rainbow. 
JVuifs.— Cherries,  strawberries,  apricots, 

pears,  apples,  plums. 


Dbawino. 
House,  liehtnine-rod ;  rainbow,  umbrella. 

Cherry,  apricot,  pear,  apple,  plum. 

Songs  and  Oames. 
Summer. 
Fruit-merchant  (Delbruck). 


August. 


Object  Lessons. 


Harvest.—  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  flour,  bread, 
doueh,  oven,  baker,  pastry-cook. 

Vouaoes.—  Highroads,  railways,  steam- 
boats; map,  cardinal  points,  compass, 
maeuet ;  races  of  men,  France,  the  world. 


Dbawino. 


Object  Lessons. 

/fMrrfmc.— Roebuck,  deer,  wild  boar,  wolf, 
fox.  hare,  rabbit,  partrldee,  lark,  quail; 
Jfun. 

Village  fete.— F&ir,  shop,  fire-works,  pow- 
der, money. 


Sheaf, spike  of  wheat;  scythe,  sickle ;  wind- 
mill, Krindstone ;  scales,  weights. 

Locomotive,  rails;  sailboat,  steamboat; 
oais,  rudder,  compass. 

SoNos  AND  Games. 
Game  of  Wheat  (Mme.  Pape-Carpantier). 
Around  the  World. 


September. 

Dbawino. 

Huntine-horn,  Kame-bae:,  eun. 
Coin  and  bank-notes. 


SoNOS  AND  Games. 
Fox  (Delcasso). 


CONSTRUCTION    AND    FURNITURE    OF    ECOLES 
MATERNELLES. 

The  ecole  matemelle  comprises, 

a.  A  vestibule  with  waiting-room  for  parents ; 

6.  One  or  two  exercise  halls ; 

c.  A  covered  and  closed  court  (preau) ; 

d.  A  kitchen  for  preparing  or  warming  the  food  of  the  children ; 

e.  A  playground  with  small  garden ; 

/.  An  abri  with  privies  and  urinals  for  the  children ; 
g.  Lodgings  for  the  directress  and  for  one  or  several  assistants, 
according  to  necessity. 

General  conditions. 
Art.  1.—  The  site  should  be  central  and  airy,  properly  drained, 
accessible,  removed  from   every  noisy,  insalubrious  or  dangerous 
establishment,  and  at  least  100  meters  from  cemeteries. 


73 

The  site  must  contain  400  meters,  and  should  be  reckoned  at 
about  8  meters  per  child. 

Arl.  2. —  The  disposition  of  the  building  should  be  determined 
according  to  the  climate,  considering  sanitary  conditions,  exposure, 
configuration  and  dimensions  of  site,  and  especially  the  distance  of 
adjacent  buildings. 

In  case  the  ecole  matemelle  form  part  of  a  groupe  scolaire,  it  should 
not  be  placed  between  the  boys'  and  girls'  schools. 

Art.  3. — All  rooms  used  by  children  should  be  on  the  ground  floor, 
which  should  be  raised  above  the  level  of  the  ground  by  three  15 
centimeter  steps. 

Art.  4. —  No  foreign  service  may  be  lodged  in  the  school  buildings. 

Exercise  halls. 

Art.  5. —  If  there  are  several  halls  of  exercise,  they  are  not  to  be 
adjoining.  They  should  communicate  with  the  covered  court 
(preau),  either  directly  or  by  halls  at  least  1.50  meters  broad. 

Art.  6. —  Exercise  halls  are  to  be  rectangular,  with  4  meter  ceiling 
and  a  maximum  width  of  8  meters.  They  should  be  calculated  to 
assure  each  child  a  minimum  of  80  centimeters. 

Art.  7. —  Floor  is  to  be  of  hard  wood,  laid  as  far  as  possible  on 
bitumen.  Pine  may  be  used  where  the  wood  is  common  on  condition 
that  the  strips  are  narrow  and  properly  oiled.  If  there  is  no  cellar, 
the  flooring  is  to  be  laid  on  a  platform  of  waterproof  materials. 

Art.  8. — The  ceiling  is  to  be  flat  and  smooth.  A  line  is  to  be  traced 
thereon  indicating  north  and  south.  There  is  to  be  no  cornice 
around  the  walls.  The  angles  formed  by  walls  or  partitions  with 
each  other  or  with  the  ceilings  are  to  be  rounded  10  centimeters  in 
radius.  All  inside  walls  are  to  be  covered  with  a  polished  coating 
permitting  frequent  cleansing.  They  should  be  wainscotted  in 
wood  to  the  height  of  1  meter. 

Art.  9. —  Single  doors  are  preferable.  They  should  be  90  centi- 
meters broad.  Doors  opening  directly  from  the  exercise  halls  into 
streets,  highways  or  courts  are  not  allowed. 

Art.  10. —  Light  from  the  ceiling  is  not  allowed. 

The  windows  should  be  on  the  two  longitudinal  walls  of  the  exer- 
cise halls.  They  should  be  rectangular  or  slightly  arched.  The 
number  and  dimensions  should  be  calculated  to  light  all  parts 
of  the  hall.  The  distance  between  the  bottom  of  the  lintel  and  the 
bottom  of  the  ceiling  should  be  about  20  centimeters.  The  sill, 
with  sloping  faces,  should  not  be  more  than  1.20  meters  from  the 
ground.  The  French  sashes  are  to  be  divided  horizontally  into  two 
pieces,  opening  separately  for  ventilation. 
10 


74 

Art.  11. —  Each  hall  is  to  have  a  stove  provided  with  a  water-box 
with  evaporating  surface.  The  stoves  are  to  be  covered  with  a 
double  covering-  of  metal  or  terra  cotta.  They  are  to  be  surrounded 
with  an  iron  grating  and  are  not  to  have  either  oven  or  dish- warmer. 
The  stove-pipe  should  in  no  case  pass  over  the  heads  of  the  chil- 
dren. The  children  are  not  to  be  placed  nearer  the  stove  than  1.25 
meters.     Cast-iron  stoves  a  feu  direct  are  forbidden. 

Art.  12. —  In  connection  with  the  heating,  proper  ventilation  is  to 
be  secured.  Orifices  for  pure  air,  which  ought  to  be  taken  directly 
from  the  outer  air,  and  orifices  for  the  escape  of  vitiated  air  should 
have  a  sufl&cient  section  to  prevent  obstructions. 

Court,  kitchen  and  play-ground. 

Art.  13. —  The  surface  of  the  court  is  to  allow  about  80  centimeters 
for  each  pupil.    The  ceiling  is  to  be  4  meters  high. 

The  court  is  to  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  articles  5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10, 11  and  12. 

Art.  14. —  The  kitchen  is  to  be  in  convenient  communication  with 
the  court.    It  is  to  have  air  and  light  directly  from  the  outer  air.- 

The  floor  is  to  be  paved  with  brick,  tile  or  flagstones,  or  cemented. 

Art.  15. —  The  surface  of  the  playground  should  allow  about  three 
meters  for  each  pupil.    It  is  not  to  have  less  than  150  meters. 

Art.  16. —  The  ground  is  to  be  covered  with  sand.  Bitumen,  pave^ 
ment  or  cement  are  not  to  be  employed  except  for  the  passages  and 
the  walks,  which  should  never  project.  In  case  the  soil  slant,  the 
declivity  should  never  exceed  three  centimeters  per  meter.  The 
ground  is  to  be  leveled  to  insure  proper  drainage  of  surface  water. 
Slops  should  never  cross  the  playground  in  an  uncovered  channel. 

Art.  17. —  Trees  should  be  set  out  in  the  playground  at  convenient 
distances  from  the  buildings,  and  arranged  in  a  manner  to  allow 
necessary  space  for  exercise  and  games  for  the  children.  A  small 
garden  should  be  annexed  to  the  playground. 

Privies. 

Art.  18. —  Every  ecole  maternelle  should  have  separate  privies  for 
the  sexes,  and  urinals  for  the  boys.  These  should  be  in  communi- 
cation with  the  court  {preau)  by  means  of  an  abri. 

Art.  19. —  The  privies  should  be  so  placed  that  prevalent  winds 
blow  not  toward  the  buildings  and  the  playground.  They  are  to  be 
divided  into  cabins,  one  for  about  15  pupils.  Each  cabin  is  to  be  55 
centimeters  in  length  and  80  centimeters  in  depth. 

Art.  20. — The  seat  is  to  be  of  wood  about  23  centimeters  high  and 
slightly  inclined  in  front.    The  orifice  should  be  oblong,  about  20 


75 

centimetere  by  14  centimeters.  It  should  not  be  more  than  5 
centimeters  from  the  edge.  The  basin  should  be  furnished  with  a 
stop-valve. 

Art.  21. —  The  urinals  should  be  equal  in  number  to  the  privies. 
The  boxes  should  be  about  35  centimeters  wide,  25  centimeters  deep 
and  70  centimeters  high. 

Art.  22. —  The  sides  and  floor  of  the  privies  and  urinals  should  be 
of  imper\'ious  materials.  All  the  angles  should  be  rounded.  The 
privies  are  to  be  so  constructed  that  water  will  run  towards  the  seat 
and  escape  through  an  opening  above  the  stop-valve.  A  service  of 
water  is  to  be  provided  for  cleansing  purposes. 

Art.  23, —  The  vaults  are  to  be  fixed  or  movable.  Movable  vaults 
are  preferable.  They  are  to  be  provided  with  ventilators.  Station- 
ary vaults  are  to  be  small,  but  not  less  than  2  meters  in  length, 
breadth  and  height.  They  are  to  be  arched,  constructed  of  imper- 
vious materials  and  coated  with  cement.  They  should  be  stanch 
and  the  bottom  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  basin.  The  exte- 
rior angles  should  be  rounded  25  centimeters  in  radius.  They 
are  to  be  placed  far  from  the  wells.  They  are  to  be  fitted  with  a 
ventilating  pipe,  to  be  raised  as  high  above  the  privies  as  the  neigh- 
boring buildings  make  necessary. 

Art.  24. —  The  urinals  and  privies  are  not  to  have  bolts  or  other 
fastenings.  They  are  to  be  masked  by  a  partition  60  centimeters 
distant  from  the  cabins.  This  partition,  raised  15  centimeters  from 
the  gi'ound,  is  not  to  be  more  than  70  centimeters  high. 

Lodgings. 

Art.  25. —  The  lodgings  of  the  directress  are  to  comprise  two  or 
three  rooms  a  feu,  a  kitchen,  water-closet,  and  cellar.  The  floor  space 
is  to  be  70  square  meters. 

Art.  26. —  The  lodgings  of  the  assistant  are  to  comprise  one  room 
a  feu  and  a  closet. 

Art.  27. —  There  is  to  be  no  direct  communication  between  the 

school  and  lodgings. 

Furniture. 

Art.  28. —  The  furniture  of  the  exercise  halls  includes  tables  42 
centimeters  high  for  the  smaller  children  and  45  for  the  larger 
children.  The  oval  form  is  preferable,  especially  for  the  little 
ones.  Tables  are  to  accommodate  eight  children,  allowing  45  centi- 
meters to  each.  Each  child  is  to  have  a  small  chair,  the  seat  of 
which  is  to  be  22  centimeters  high  for  the  little  ones  and  25  for  the 
other  section. 


76 

Art.  29. —  If  school  desks  for  two  pupils,  having  stationary  seats 
with  backs,  are  used,  the  dimensions  for  the  two  sections  are  to  be 
as  follows : 

Height  above  the  floor  42  and  45  centimeters. 

Width  40  centimeters. 

Length  90  centimeters. 

Height  of  seat  22  and  25  centimeters. 

Distance  between  seat  and  desk  5  centimeters.  The  top  of  desk 
is  to  be  horizontal  unless  made  to  incline,  by  some  simple  and 
inexpensive  contrivance,  for  some  of  the  exercises  of  the  larger 
children. 

The  back  of  the  seat  is  formed  by  a  cross-piece  8  centimeters 
wide,  the  height  of  which  above  the  seat  is  to  be  18  and  19 
centimeters. 

The  seat  is  to  be  20  centimeters  wide. 

Art.  30. —  The  tables  or  desks  are  not  to  interfere  with  the  easy 
execution  of  the  gymnastic  exercises.  The  aisles  next  the  wall  are 
to  be  at  least  80  centimeters  wide. 

Art.  31. — A  table  with  drawers  is  to  serve  as  teacher's  desk. 

Art.  32. —  Blackboards  are  to  be  placed  along  the  walls  of  the  hall 
50  centimeters  from  the  floor,  and  rising  1.20  meters  above  the 
same. 

Art.  33. — A  cupboard  is  to  be  provided  for  teaching  supplies. 

Covered  court. 

Art.  34. —  The  furniture  of  the  court  includes  hooks  for  clothing 
and  open-work  shelves,  arranged  along  the  walls  for  the  lunch- 
baskets  (The  height  of  the  shelves  and  hooks  should  be  such  as 
to  permit  the  children  to  reach  tlieir  things);  seats  with  backs 
an-anged  in  a  circle;  tables  and  movable  seats  for  children's 
repasts  (The  length  of  the  tables  is  to  be  at  least  60  centimeters) ; 
one  bed  for  each  group  of  ten  children  of  the  lower  section ;  lava- 
tories with  towels,  placed  at  one  extremity  of  the  court  behind  an 
open-work  screen  1  meter  high  with  entrance  and  way  out.  The 
floor  of  this  part  of  the  court  is  to  be  paved  with  brick,  tile,  flag- 
stone or  bitumen.  There  is  to  be  one  wash-basin  for  each  group  of 
ten  children.  The  height  of  the  same  above  the  floor  is  not  to  exceed 
50  centimeters. 

Art.  35. — A  cupboard  is  to  be  provided  for  the  linen,  and  is  to 
contain  extra  clothing  for  the  children. 

Art.  36. — Wooden  benches  with  backs  are  to  be  placed  in  a  circle 
about  the  playground,  which  is  also  to  furnish  drinking  water. 


77 

Supplies. 
Art.  37. — These  include  ; 

a.  Collection  of  playthings  for  the  covered  court  (e.  g.  wooden  or 
rubber  animals,  dolls  and  dresses,  lead  or  wooden  soldiers,  building 
blocks,  flooring  blocks,  etc.)  and  for  the  playground  (e.  g.  buckets, 
shovels,  wheelbarrows,  go-carts,  jumping  ropes,  hoops,  balls,  etc.); 

b.  Sand  for  exercises  in  geography  and  construction  either  in 
court  or  playground ; 

c.  Collection  of  sticks,  staves,  slats,  cubes,  etc. ; 

d.  Collection  of  pictures ; 

e.  Apparatus  necessary  for  the  manual  exercises : 
/.  Slates  ruled  on  one  side  in  squares ; 

g.  Collection  of  common  objects ; 

h.  Movable  letters ; 

i.   Terrestrial  globe  and  wall-map  of  France ; 

j.   Tuning-fork ; 

k.  Whistle. 

Observation. 

The  ecoles  matemelles  in  Paris  are  furnished  with  an  abundance  of 
apparatus.  The  municipal  government  publishes  a  list  of  teaching 
supplies  every  year,  from  which  directresses  are  permitted  to  select 
up  to  a  fixed  amount. 

TWENTIETH  CHAPTER. 

LOWER  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

General  and  Pedagogic  Organization. 

Section  1. —  The  lower  primary  schools  {ecoles  primaires  elementaires) 
are  for  children  from  6  to  13  years  of  age.  No  pupil  can  be 
admitted  before  the  age  of  6  years  if  there  exist  in  the  community 
at  a  convenient  distance  a  public  ecole  matemelle ;  before  the  age  of 
7  years,  if  there  exist  a  public  classe  enfaniine.  Birth  certificate 
and  medical  certificate  of  vaccination  and  freedom  from  contagious 
diseases  are  required. 

Every  commune  is  obliged  to  furnish  public  teachers  with  suitable 
lodgings  and  with  proper  school  buildings,  school  furniture  and 
school  supplies. 

The  ministerial  decree  regulating  the  building  and  fiunishing  of 
public  lower  primary  schools  is  given  below  under  a  special  head 
(page  92). 

In  case  lodgings  are  not  furnished  teachers,  an  allowance  is  made 
therefor,  the  amount  of  which  is  determined  each  year  by  the  prefect 


78 

with  the  advice  of  the  municipal  council  and  of  the  academj'^  inspec- 
tor (page  60). 

Teachers  are  not  under  any  circumstances  to  be  distracted  from 
their  professional  work  during  school  hours  nor  are  they  to  occupy 
themselves  with  matters  foreign  to  their  scholastic  duties. 

Children  are  not  to  be  disturbed  during-  school  hours. 

The  morning  and  afternoon  sessions  are  to  last  three  hours  each, 
opening  at  8  a.  m.  and  1  p.  M.,  respectively. 

These  hours  may  be  changed  according  to  local  needs  by  the 
academy  inspector  on  the  demand  of  the  local  authorities  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  primary  inspector. 

The  department  council,  with  the  consent  of  the  municipal  council 
and  on  the  proposition  of  the  academy  inspector,  may  authorize  the 
establishment  of  half-time  schools  (ecoles  de  demi-temps).  In  this  case 
the  director  is  to  divide  the  pupils  into  two  groups.  One  of  these 
groups  attends  school  from  8  to  11  a.  m.,  the  other  from  1  to  4  r.  m. 
Parents  may  on  demand  obtain  permission  to  have  their  children 
attend  both  sessions. 

In  schools  with  several  classes,  the  exercises  of  the  elementary 
and  middle  courses  are  divided  by  a  hve-minute  recess,  occurring 
every  hour.  In  the  advanced  course,  each  of  the  two  sessions  is 
divided  by  a  fifteen-minute  recess. 

Teachers  must  oversee  the  pupils  during  recesses  and  intermis- 
sions, and  all  the  time  they  remain  on  the  premises. 

In  each  school  there  is  a  list,  with  prices  of  all  articles  with  which 
teacher  may  furnish  pupils.  This  list  is  signed  by  the  primary 
inspector. 

French  is  the  only  language  to  be  used  in  teaching.* 

Theatrical  representations,  petitions,  subscriptions  and  lotteries 
are  forbidden. 

No  book  or  pamphlet,  printed  or  in  manuscript,  may  be  intro- 
duced into  the  school  without  the  written  authorization  of  the 
academy  inspector. 

The  class  walls  are  to  be  whitened  every  year  and  kept  in  a  con- 
stant state  of  cleanliness.  The  class-room  is  to  be  swept  and 
scrubbed  every  day.  The  air  is  to  be  changed  frequently.  Even 
in  winter,  the  windows  are  to  be  opened  during  recesses  and 
intermissions. 

Public  teachers  are  not  permitted  to  receive  from  pupils  or 
parents  presents  of  any  description. 

•  It  is  InterestlDK  to  note  that  since  my  report  of  last  year,  Prussia  has  found  It  neces- 
sary to  modify  the  regulation  that  from  April  1, 1889,  Oerman  was  to  be  used  exclusively 
in  teachint;.  even  in  districts  with  a  larire  foreisn  population. 


Drawn  by  a  Pupil  of  a   Puljlic  Lower  Primary  School  i;i  Paris. 


79 

The  only  punishments  of  which  the  teacher  may  make  use  are : 
Bad  mai'ks  ;  repriraauds ;  partial  deprivation  of  recesH ;  detention 
after  class ;  temporary  suspension,  not  to  exceed  three  days.  Notice 
is  to  be  sent  immediately  to  the  parents  of  the  child,  the  local 
authorities  and  the  primary  inspector.  Suspension  of  longer  dura- 
tion may  be  pronounced  only  by  the  academy  inspector. 

Corporal  punishment  is  prohibited  absolutely.* 

Teachers  are  forbidden  to  tutoyer  (thee  and  thou)  theu-  pupils. 

The  extraordinary  holidays  are 

A  week  at  Eastertide ; 

New  Year  day  or  Monday  if  this  fall  on  Sunday  or  Thursday  ; 

Monday  of  Whitsuntide ; 

The  morning'  after  All  Saints'  day ; 

Days  of  patronal/e/es  / 

The  day  of  the  national /ete. 

Date  and  duration  of  vacations  are  fixed  each  year  by  the  prefect 
in  conseil  departemental.-f 

Teachers  may  not  change  class  days  nor  absent  themselves  with- 
out authorization  of  primary  inspector,  and  without  giving  notice 
of  this  authorization  to  the  local  authorities. 

If  the  absence  lasts  more  than  three  days,  the  authorization  of 
academy  inspector  is  necessary. 

Leave  of  absence  for  more  than  fifteen  days  may  only  be  granted 
by  the  prefect.  Under  serious  and  unforeseen  circumstances,  the 
teacher  may  absent  himself  without  other  conditions  than  notice  to 
the  local  authorities  and  to  the  primary  inspector. 

Lower  primary  instruction  includes, — 

Morals  and  civics ; 

Residing  and  writing ; 

The  French  language ; 

Arithmetic,  including  the  metric  system  ; 

History  and  geography,  especially  of  France ; 

Object  lessons  and  elementary  scientific  notions ; 

Elements  of  drawing,  singing  and  manual  training ; 

Gymnastic  and  military  exercises. 


*  Italy,  France  and  BelKiam  have  abolished  corporal  punishment  Prassia,  however, 
recoKnlzes  it  as  a  necessity  and  carries  it  to  an  extent  which  shocks  us. 

*  In  the  li/ce'eg  and  colleges  the  summer  vacation  is  from  AuKust  flrst  to  October  first, 
la  primary  normal  schools  the  summer  vacation  is  seven  weeks  in  lensth.  In  lower 
primary  schools  the  lencrth  of  the  school  year  varies  sliKhtly  in  the  different  depart- 
ments. In  those  schools  which  I  have  visited  the  school  year  varies  from  forty-two 
to  forty-five  weeks  except  in  the  icoles  materneUns  which  remain  in  session  about  forty- 
eisht  weeks  annually. 


80 

The  department  council  prepares  reflations  for  the  public  lower 
primary  schools  of  esich  department  after  the  plan  of  the  ministerial 
reflation  decreed  in  higher  council. 

Instruction  is  given  in  three  divisions,  viz.,  elementary,  middle 
and  advanced  courses.  Whatever  be  the  number  of  classes  and 
pupils,  these  divisions  are  compulsory. 

The  course  of  study  is  divided  as  follows. — 

Infant  section. —  One  or  two  years  according  as  children  enter  at 
6  or  5; 

Elementary  course. —  Two  years,  from  7  to  9 ; 

Middle  course. —  Two  years,  from  9  to  11 ; 

Advanced  course. — Two  years,  from  11  to  13. 

In  schools  with  one  teacher  and  one  class,  there  is  to  be  no  divi- 
sion in  the  middle  and  advanced  courses.  There  are  not  to  be  more 
than  two  divisions  for  pupils  under  9. 

In  schools  with  two  teachers,  one  has  charge  of  the  middle,  and 
advanced  courses,  the  other  of  the  elementary  course  and  of  the 
infant  section  if  there  be  one. 

In  schools  with  three  teachers,  each  course  forms  a  distinct  class. 

In  schools  with  four  classes,  the  elementary  course  includes  two 
classes  and  each  of  the  other  courses  one  class. 

In  schools  with  five  classes,  the  elementary  course  includes  two 
classes,  the  middle  course  two  and  the  advanced  course  one  class. 

In  schools  with  six  classes,  each  of  the  three  courses  forms  two 
classes,  provided  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  advanced  course  be  not 
small  enough  for  combination  into  a  single  class. 

In  all  cases  in  which  the  same  course  comprises  two  classes,  one 
class  represents  the  first  year,  the  other  the  second  year  of  the 
course.  The  two  classes  follow  the  same  course  of  study,  but  the 
lessons  and  exercises  are  so  graduated  that  in  the  second  year  pupils 
review  and  complete  the  studies  of  the  first. 

In  schools  with  more  than  six  classes,  whatever  be  the  number  of 
teachers,  no  course  is  to  require  more  than  two  years.  The  classes 
above  six,  not  including  the  infant  section,  are  to  be  parallel  classes. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  year,  the  pupils  are  divided  according 
to  their  attainments  into  the  different  classes  of  the  three  cours3s 
by  the  director  under  the  control  of  the  primary  inspector.  The 
cerlijicat  d'etudes  admits  to  the  advanced  course. 

Each  pupil  receives  on  entering  school  a  special  blank-book  which 
is  to  be  preserved  throughout  the  school  course.  The  first  task  of 
each  month  in  each  study  is  entered  in  this  book,  in  class  and  with- 
out aid,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  progress  of  the  pupil  may  be 


81 


followed  from  year  to  year.  There  is  a  special  blank-book  for  each 
of  the  three  courses.  Below  is  g^iven  a  specimen  page  of  the  cahier 
for  the  elementary  course : 

NAaft        COMMUNAL  SCHOOL  AT 

OF  INSTITUTION....  DATE: 


(day,  month,  year) 


NAME  OP  PUPIL: 


.COURSE 


Date  of  birth 
Entered  school 


(TiUeoftask). 


n 


82 

The  other  cahiers  differ  only  in  having-  single  ruled  lines  instead 
of  the  four,  and  in  being  somewhat  larger  (40,  48  and  64  pages). 
These  cahiers  are  carefully  preserved  at  the  school  until  the  child 
finish  the  courses.  They  are  then  plainly  bound  and  'given  to 
him. 

In  case  children  leave  one  school  for  another,  these  cahiers  are 
submitted  to  the  teacher  and  form  the  basis  for  classification.  Each 
task  is  to  be  corrected  by  the  teacher  with  ink  or  colored  pencil. 
The  primary  inspector  at  each  inspection  is  to  place  his  signature 
under  the  last  task  written  in  the  cahier. 

The  cover  of  each  ndhier  contains  the  name  and  date  of  birth  of 
pupil,  with  the  date  of  entering  and  of  leaving  the  school.  The 
inside  covers  offer  the  following  recommendations  to  the  children : 

GMld: 

This  cahier  is  eiven  you  to  be  tlie  companion  and  witness  of  your  studies  throueliont 
your  scliool  life. 

Every  month  you  are  to  fill  a  few  pages  with  the  tasks  which  are  set  for  you.  You  are 
to  do  this  in  class  without  aid  either  from  comrade  or  master.  You  are  to  continue  in 
this  way  throujfhout  your  school  days,  that  is  to  say  up  to  the  age  of  18  years  or  until 
you  have  obtained  the  certiflcat  d'4tudes. 

This  cahier  will  show  whether  you  merit  promotion  or  not.  It  will  erive  you  the  pleas- 
ure of  seeine  the  progress  you  are  making.  All  these  tasks  when  bound  together  make 
but  a  very  small  volume.  And  yet  they  are  in  a  measure  the  reium^  of  all  your  child- 
hood, the  history  of  your  six  or  seven  years  of  study.  You  will  be  glad  to  have  this 
soxivenir  of  your  school  when  you  leave  it  to  return  no  more.  You  will  preserve  care- 
fully these  modest  tasks  which  testify  to  yourself  and  to  all  how  you  have  passed  your 
childhood. 

Child,  do  your  duty  in  such  a  way  that  you  may  look  at  this  abstract  of  your  school 
life  without  having  occasion  to  blush.  It  is  not  necessary  for  this  that  you  be  one  of 
the  flrst  in  your  class.  The  advantage  of  this  cahier  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  does  not 
compare  you  with  your  comrades  but  with  yourself.  It  is  not  to  show  whether  you  are 
more  intelligent,  more  clever,  more  learned  than  other  pupils;  but  whether,  month  by 
month  and  year  by  year,  you  become  more  expert  and  better  informed. 

Child,  be  diligent  This  cahier  is  ready  to  receive  the  best  work  you  can  do,  work 
which  will  be  a  credit  to  you  and  at  the  same  time  a  source  of  pleasure  to  your  parents 
and  teachers.  Be  careful  with  your  penmanship,  your  dictation,  your  tasks  in  history, 
geography  and  arithmetic.  If  the  first  pages  are  filled  to  your  satisfaction,  you  will 
wish  to  make  the  following  better  still. 

Exert  yourself  to  make  progress.  It  is  the  law  of  school  because  it  is  the  law  of  life. 
Men  are  subject  thereto  as  well  as  children.  The  cahier  will  remind  you  of  this  per- 
haps while  inviting  you  to  examine  yourself  more  frequently. 

Child,  think  also  of  this.  One  does  not  work  for  one's  self  alone  in  this  world,  one 
works  also  for  others.  Little  children  without  thinking  of  it  are  working  also  for  their 
country. 

Good  pupils  become  good  citizens.  If  you  make  good  use  of  your  childhood,  if  you 
profit  by  all  the  means  of  instruction  which  the  Republic  takes  care  to  offer  to  ail  her 
children,  you  will  be  able  one  day  to  give  back  to  your  mother  country  what  bhe  is  giving 
you  to-day.  Prance  needs  workers  and  men  of  property  such  as  you  will  become,  if  you 
lay  the  proper  foundation  here.  Do  not  lose  your  time ;  you  have  no  right  to  do  this. 
Idlers  wrong  themselves  no  doubt,  but  they  wrong  their  country  still  more. 

Do  not  permit  yourself  to  be  overcome  in  moments  of  feelDleness  and  discouragement. 
Take  courage  and  say  under  your  breath:  No,  I  will  not  be  useless,  ungrateful  toward 
my  family,  ungrateful  toward  France— I  will  work,  I  will  do  my  best,  not  only  because 
it  is  to  my  interest,  but  because  it  is  my  duty. 


83 

All  competitions  between  public  schools,  in  which  at  least  all 
the  pupils  of  one  of  the  three  courses  do  not  participate,  are 
forbidden. 

Instruction  gvven  in  the  public  primary  schools  has  a  three-fold 
character, —  physical,  moral  and  intellectual. 

At  the  opening  of  each  school  year,  the  time-table  by  day  and 
hour  is  prepared  by  the  director,  and  after  approval  of  primary 
inspector,  is  exposed  in  the  class-rooms. 

The  division  of  exercises  must  satisfy  the  following  general 
conditions, — 

a.  Each  session  is  to  be  divided  into  several  diflferent  exercises, 
separated  by  the  reglementary  recreations ; 

b.  Exercises  demanding  the  greatest  attention,  such  as  arithmetic, 
grammar  and  composition,  should  take  place  in  the  morning,  or  in 
half-time  schools,  at  the  commencement  of  the  sessions ; 

c.  Every  lesson  and  every  task  is  to  be  accompanied  with  explana- 
tions and  questions ; 

d.  Correction  of  tasks  and  recitation  of  lessons  are  to  take  place 
during  the  hours  to  which  these  tasks  and  recitations  belong. 
Usually  the  tasks  are  corrected  on  the  blackboard  at  the  same  time 
the  cahiers  are  inspected.  Compositions  are  corrected  by  the  master 
outside  the  class. 

e.  The  thirty  hours  per  week  (not  including  the  time  pupils  may 
study  at  home  or  the  study  hours,  in  the  preparation  of  tasks  and 
lessons)  should  be  divided  as  follows : 

1.  There  is  to  be  a  daily  lesson  in  morals  in  each  of  the  first  two 
courses  in  the  form  of  a  familiar  talk  or  by  means  of  an  appropriate 
selection.  In  the  advanced  course,  these  lessons  should  develop 
methodically  the  course  of  study  in  morale  ; 

2.  Instruction  in  French  (reading,  selections  explained,  lessons 
in  grammar,  exercises  in  orthography,  dictation,  analysis,  composi- 
tion, recitation,  etc.),  are  to  occupy  about  two  hours  a  day ; 

3.  Scientific  instruction  is  to  occupy  from  one  hour  to  one  and 
one-half  hours  daily.  Three-quartei-s  of  an  hour  or  one  hour  should 
be  devotfcd  to  arithmetic  and  to  mathematic  exercises. 

The  rest  of  the  time  should  be  devoted  to  object  lessons  and  to 
elementary  scientific  notions ; 

4.  Instruction  in  history  and  geography,  including  civics, 
should  occupy  about  an  hour  daily ; 


84 

5.  The  time  devoted  to  penmanship  should  be  at  least  one 
hour  daily  in  the  elementary  course,  and  should  give  place 
gradually  in  the  higher  courses  to  exercises  in  dictation  and 
composition ; 

6.  Instruction  in  drawing  begins  with  very  short  lessons  in  the 
elementary  course,  and  occupies  two  or  three  periods  weekly  in 
the  other  courses ; 

7.  Singing  lessons  occupy  from  one  to  two  hours  per  week,  inde- 
pendent of  the  exercises  in  singing  which  take  place  daily  on  enter- 
ing and  lea\ing  the  classes ; 

8.  Gymnastics,  in  addition  to  the  evolutions  and  exercises  which 
may  accompany  the  movements  of  the  classes,  occupy  daily,  or  at 
least  every  other  day,  a  period  in  the  afternoon. 

In  communes  where  there  are  school  battalions  the  exercises  may 
not  take  place  except  Thursdays  and  Sundays.  The  time  to  be 
devoted  thereto  is  determined  by  the  military  instructor  in  concert 
with  the  school  inspector, 

9.  Finally,  for  both  boys  and  girls,  two  or  three  hours  weekly  are 
to  be  devoted  to  manual  training. 

Section  2. —  In  each  department  a  list  is  made  annually  of  the 
books  which  may  be  used  in  public  primary  schools.  As  in  Prussia, 
text-books  are  not  printed  by  the  government.* 

The  teachers  (iitulaires)  of  each  canton,  united  in  special  con- 
ference, make  by  the  fifteenth  of  July  at  the  latest  a  list  of 
the  books  which  they  deem  proper  for  use  in  public  primary 
schools. 

All  these  lists  are  sent  to  the  academy  inspector.  A  commission 
sitting  at  the  chief  place  in  the  department,  and  composed  of  the 
primary  inspector,  the  director  and  the  directress  of  the  normal 
schools  and  delegated  professors  and  masters  of  these  establish- 
ments, meets  under  the  presidency  of  the  academy  inspector,  revises 
the  cantonal  lists,  and  issues  the  catalogue  for  the  department  which 
is  then  submitted  to  the  rector  for  his  approval. 

*  American  text-books  are  recoKDized  by  impartial  personu  as  the  best  In  the  world, 
both  as  regards  mechanical  construction  and  subject  matter.  This  superiority  is 
attributed  to  the  Independence  and  spontaneity  of  the  authors.  Manuel  Vald^s 
RodriKuez  in  his  "  Problema  de  la  Educacion,"  publI^hed  at  Havana  in  1891  says :  "  Bien 
puede  decirse  que  ap^nas  habra  en  el  mundo  llbros  mejor  constituidcs  por  bus  condi- 
ciones.  asi  internas,  como  externas.  Comparados  con  los  franceses  les  (los  llbros  de 
tezto  americnno)6on  muy  superioresen  uno  y  otroconcepto.  D^bese  esta  superiorldad 
&  las  oondiciones  de  independencia  y  espontaneldad  de  los  autores." 


86 

The  records  which  the  male  and  female  teachers  must  keep  are, — 

a.  Regfister  of  matriculation ; 

b.  Begister  of  absence  and  attendance ; 

c.  Inventory  of  school  furniture  and  school  supplies; 

d.  Inventory  of  personal  propert}',  if  there  l)e  any ; 

e.  Catalo^ie  of  the  books  of  the  populai'  librai-y  of  the  public 
school,  with  record  of  receipts  and  disbursements  and  books  drawn. 

The  first  four  of  these  records  must  be  kept  also  by  the  direct- 
resses of  the  ecoles  matemelles. 

In  addition  to  the  records  referred  to  above,  there  is  a  very  con- 
venient little  book,  entitled  carnet  de  correspondance,  which  contains 
a  record  of  absences,  tardy  marks,  deportment,  work  at  school,  work 
at  home  and  relative  standing  of  pupils.  This  book  is  given  to  the 
pupil  every  fortnight  on  Satui'day,  and  is  returned  Monday  morn- 
ing with  the  remarks  of  parents  or  guardians  written  over  their 
signatures. 

Below  is  printed  a  specimen  page  of  this  book  of  record : 


Class.  Course, 


SEPTEMBER,  189.. 
Second  Fortnight. 

Absence 

Tardiness 

Deportment  at  school 

School  work 

Home  tasks 


Relative  standlnRJ 


Qeneral  note  for  the  fortnight. 


BEMABE& 


Teacher. 


Vita  of  teacher. 


Parents. 


Siimature  of  parents. 


86 

In  France  ^eat  stress  is  laid  on  encouragring  the  habit  of  saving 
money.  The  inside  cover  of  this  little  carnet  de  correspondance  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  savings  of  the  children  for  the  year  in  the 
following  form : 


No. 


URAND  SAVINGS  BANK, 
No.  of  Bank-book. 


SCHOOL  SAVINGS  BANK. 


M. 


born 18..,  at 

residing  at 


MONTH 
(School  year  189.. -189..). 

Weekly  Deposits. 

Total  for 
month. 

To  grand 

savings 

bank. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

November 

January  (189    ) 

Febrnary  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

AuKUBt 

Totals .. 

Total  deposits  for  year 

Amount  transferred 

The  child   depof^its    his    savings  wilh 

Balance  

the  amount  thus  deposited  equals  a  franc 
It  is  entered  by  the  teacher  on  the  Savings 
Bank-book,  which   is   exactly  like  those 
used  by  adults. 

Those  who  have  not  given  this  subject  attention  would  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  the  grand  total  of  such  savings  (page  31).  But 
pennies  generally  contributed  make  up  very  large  sums.     In  Eng- 


87 

land,  for  example,  the  children's  pence  have  been  an  important 
source  of  income. 

The  last  education  report,  reviewed  July  22,  1891,  in  the  Loudon 
Globe,  shows  that  the  children's  pence  for  the  year  under  review 
exceeded  £1,900,000. 

This  is  most  remarkable  seeing  that  over  a  million  of  chil- 
dren who  ought  to  have  attended  the  English  public  elementary 
schools  were  not  found  there.* 


DIVISION  OF  THE  COUKSE  OF  STUDY  IN  LOWER 

PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

I. 

Physical  Education. 

Object. —  Physical  education  serves  a  double  purpose : 

It  fortifies  the  body  and  strengthens  the  constitution  of  the  child, 
placing  him  in  hygienic  conditions  most  favorable  for  his  general 
physical  development. 

It  gives  him  early  in  life  that  address  and  agility,  that  manual 
dexterity  of  movement  especially  necessary  to  the  pupils  of 
primary  schools,  most  of  whom  are  destined  for  the  trades. 
Without  losiug  its  essential  character  as  an  educational  establish- 
ment, and  without  transformation  into  a  work-shop,  the  primary 
school  can  give  and  ought  to  give  physical  training,  which  will  predis- 
pose and  prepare  in  a  certain  measure  the  boys  for  the  duties  of 
workmen  and  soldiers,  the  girls  for  household  duties  and  the  work 
of  women. 

Method. —  Physical  exercises  form  a  diversion  from  school  duties 
and  lessons  proper.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  conduct  them  in  such  a 
way  that  the  pupils  will  regard  them  as  a  veritable  recreation.  The 
progress  of  instruction  in  gymnastics  is  regulated  in  detail  by 
manuals  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  minister,  as  well  as 
by  the  directions  of  special  professors  and  teachers.  For  the 
manual  training  of  the  boys,  the  exercises  are  divided  into  two 
groups. 

One  includes  those  which  are  destined  to  make  the  fingers 
flexible  and  to  promote  dexterity,  rapidity,  and  accuracy  of  move- 

*  This  is  merely  an  illustration.  Tlie  savinss  of  French  children  belonK  to  them 
The  pence  which  the  EnRllsh  children  handed  their  teachers  every  Monday  morning 
went  toward  defrayino:  the  cost  of  education.  The  new  bill,  which  went  into  effect 
September  l,  1891,  makes  education  free,  thus  doing  away  with  the  children's  pence. 


88 

meut;  the  other  includes  ^aduated  exercises  in  modeling  which 
complement  the  study  of  drawing,  and  particularly  of  industrial 
drawing. 

The  manual  training  of  girls,  in  addition  to  needlework  and  cutting, 
includes  certain  lessons,  counsels  and  exercises  by  means  of  which 
the  mistress  does  not  propose  to  give  a  complete  course  in  domestic 
economy,  but  may  inspire  girls,  by  a  number  of  practical  examples, 
with  the  love  of  order,  leading  them  to  acquire  the  serious  qualities 
of  the  housekeeper,  and  putting  them  on  their  guard  against  frivol- 
ous or  dangerous  tastes. 

n. 

Intellectual  Education. 

Object. —  The  intellectual  education,  which  the  public  primary 
schools  should  give,  is  easy  to  characterize. 

The  information  imparted  should  be  limited,  but  of  such  a  char- 
acter as  to  assure  for  the  child  the  practical  knowledge  which  he  will 
need  in  life.  It  should  act  on  his  faculties,  form  and  cultivate  his 
mind  and  constitute  in  fact  an  education. , 

The  ideal  of  the  primary  school  is  not  to  teach  much,  but  to  teach 
well. 

The  child  learns  little,  but  knows  that  little  well.  The  instruc- 
tion which  he  has  received  is  limited,  but  not  superficial.  It  is  not 
a  demi-instruction,  and  he  who  receives  it  will  not  be  a  demi-savant. 
That  which  makes  instruction  complete  or  incomplete  is  not  the 
extent  of  the  domain  which  is  cultivated;  it  is  the  manner  of 
cultivation. 

"The  object  of  primary  instruction,"  wrote  Greardin  1875,  "is  not 
to  embrace  under  the  different  subjects  on  which  it  touches  all  that 
it  is  possible  to  know,  but  to  learn  well  under  each  where  ignorance 
is  inexcusable." 

Method. —  The  object  of  primary  instruction  being  thus  defined, 
the  method  to  follow  suggests  itself.  It  does  not  consist  of  a  suc- 
cession of  mechanic  processes  or  of  an  apprenticeship  only  in 
reading,  writing  and  arithmetic,  or  of  a  cold  series  of  lessons  setting 
forth  the  different  chapters  of  a  course. 

The  only  proper  method  in  primary  instruction  is  that  which 
keeps  up  a  continual  interchange  of  ideas  under  varied,  elastic  and 
ingeniously  graduated  forms.  The  master  begins  always  with  what 
the  pupils  know,  and  proceeding  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
from  the  easy  to  the  difficult,  conducts  them  by  a  chain  of  oral 


■^^^  -^      '^i^€i 


^^yhM/r 


Z^^l/f'lf^^Od . 


(2Aa^>^.<rt£t,'ri,ce^  e^  c>t.ejc-a.ci^c/s.    /  t^.t.'iZf/ 


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I^>&t^3fiCx-«we   i 

%- 



Language  Exert-Ue  by  French  Elemeiilary  Pupil  of  llie  Middle  Course. 

Introduced  to  show  that  mojal  iDstruction  Is  often  given  Incidentally  in  connection 
with  other  subject!^.    The  selectl-  •!]  sets  forth  the  evils  of  Ignorance  and  cruelty. 


89 

questions  or  of  written  tasks  to  discover  the  consequences  of  a 
principle,  the  applications  of  a  rule,  or  inversely  the  principles  and 
rules  which  they  have  already  unconsciously  applied.  In  all 
instruction  the  master  begins  with  ihe  concrete;  then  little  by  little 
pupils  are  exercised  in  developing-  the  idea  of  the  abstract,  in  com- 
paring, in  generalizing,  in  reasoning  without  the  aid  of  material 
examples. 

Primary  instruction  is  sustained  by  an  incessant  appeal  to  the 
attention,  to  the  judgment,  to  the  intellectual  spontaneity  of  the 
pupil.  It  is  essentially  intuitive  and  practical :  Intuitive,  that  is  to 
say  it  counts  before  all  on  good  common  sense,  on  the  weight  of 
evidence,  on  that  innate  power  of  the  mind  to  seize,  at  first  sight 
and  without  demonstration,  not  all  truths,  but  the  most  simple  and 
the  most  fundamental ;  practical,  that  is  to  say  it  never  forgets  that 
primary  pupils  have  no  time  to  lose  in  idle  discussions,  in  learned 
theories,  in  scholastic  curiosities,  and  proceeds  at  once  to  furnish 
them  with  the  little  store  of  ideas  which  they  will  need  in  life,  and 
in  such  a  manner  that  these  ideas  are  preserved  and  developed 
when  school  days  are  over. 

It  is  under  this  double  condition  that  primary  instruction  under- 
takes the  education  and  the  culture  of  the  mind.  Nature  herself 
directs  the  course  of  this  instruction.  It  develops  in  parallel  lines 
the  difi'erent  faculties  of  the  intelligence  merely  by  exercising  them 
in  a  simple,  spontaneous  and  almost  instinctive  manner.  It  forms 
the  judgment  in  leading  the  child  to  judge ;  the  habit  of  observa 
tion  in  teaching  him  to  observe ;  reasoning,  in  aiding  him  to  reason 
for  himself  and  without  the  rules  of  logic. 

This  confidence  in  natural  forces,  and  this  absence  of  all  preten- 
tion, suit  all  rudimentary  instruction,  but  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  public  primary  school,  which  ought  to  deal,  not  with  certain 
children  apart,  but  with  the  masses  of  the  child  population. 

Instruction  is  necessarily  collective  and  simultaneous.  The 
master  is  not  to  devote  himself  to  a  few  but  to  all.  His  work 
ought  to  be  appreciated,  not  by  results  obtained  with  a  portion 
of  his  class  but  with  the  class  as  a  whole.  Wliatever  the  inequality 
in  the  intelligence  of  the  pupils,  there  is  a  minimum  of  information 
and  of  aptitude  which  primary  instruction  ought  to  communicate  to 
all  pupils  with  very  few  exceptions.  This  minimum  Avill  be  very 
easily  reached  by  some  pupils,  but  if  it  is  not  attained  by  the  rest 
of  the  class,  the  master  has  not  understood  his  task  or  has  not 
entirely  accomplished  it. 
12 


90 


HL 

Moral  Education. 

Object  and  Method.—  Moral  education  differs  profoundly  in  its 

end  and  in  its  essential  character  from  the  other  two  parts  of  the 

progrram. 

End  and  Essential  Character. 

Moral  instruction  is  destined  to  complete  and  to  bind  together, 
to  raise  and  to  ennoble  all  the  other  instruction  of  the  school.  While 
each  of  the  other  studies  develops  a  special  order  of  aptitudes  and 
gives  useful  information,  this  tends  to  develop  the  man  himself 
within  the  man,  that  is  to  say  a  heart,  an  intelligence,  a  conscience. 

Moral  instruction  moves  in  another  sphere  than  physical  and 
intellectual.  The  force  of  moral  training  depends  much  less  on  the 
precision  and  on  the  logical  sequence  of  the  truths  taught  than  on 
the  intensity  of  feeling,  the  vivacity  of  impressions  and  the  con- 
tagious heat  of  conviction.  This  education  does  not  lead  to  knowl- 
edge (savoir)  but  to  will  {vouloir).  It  moves  more  than  it  proves ; 
it  comes  rather  from  the  heart  than  from  the  reason.  It  does  not 
undertake  to  analyze  all  the  reasons  for  the  moral  £ict;  it  seeks 
before  all  to  produce  this  act,  to  repeat  it,  to  make  it  rule  life  as  a 
habit.  Especially  at  the  primary  school,  it  is  not  a  science  but  an 
art,  the  art  of  inclining  the  free-will  toward  the  good. 

Part  of  tJie  Teacher  in  this  Instruction. 

The  teacher  is  charged  with  this  part  of  education,  in  addition  to 
the  others,  as  a  representative  of  society. 

A  secular  and  democratic  society  has  in  fact  the  most  direct 
interest  in  the  early  initiation  of  all  its  members  by  ineffaceable 
lessons  into  the  sentiment  of  their  dignity  and  into  a  feeling  not  less 
profound  of  their  duty  and  of  their  personal  responsibility. 

To  attain  this  end,  the  teacher  is  not  to  teach  in  detail  theoretic 
and  practical  morals  as  if  dealing  with  children  devoid  of  all  previous 
notions  of  good  and  bad.  The  great  majority  enter  school  receiving 
or  having  received  a  religious  instruction  which  familiarizes  them 
with  the  idea  of  a  God,  creator  of  the  universe  and  father  of  men. 
with  the  traditions,  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  Christian  or  Jewish 
religions. 

By  means  of  one  of  these  religions  and  under  the  forms  peculiar 
thereto,  pupils  have  already  received  the  fundamental  notions  of 
universal  and  eternal  morals ;  but  these  notions  are  new-bom  and 


Cmthnxit 


■V  /^^oonil*    Vi  UlliU  ^lipnmtJvpn.  ,->^  i«<8 


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liangnage  Exercise  by  French  Elementary  Pupil  of  the  Advanced  Course. 

Introduced  to  show  that  moral  instruction  is  often  Klven  inoidentaHly  in  connection 
with  other  subjects.    The  selection  teaches  the  value  of  modesty,  reserve  and  diligence. 


91 

fragile  BhootR.  They  have  not  penetrated  deeply  into  the  soil; 
they  are  fugitive  and  confused,  committed  to  memory  rather  than 
to  conscience.  They  need  to  be  ripened  and  developed  by  a 
suitable  training,  which  the  public  teacher  is  to  give. 

The  limits  to  his  mission  are,  therefore,  closely  defined.  He  is  to 
strengthen,  to  root  in  the  souls  of  his  pupils  for  all  their  lives, 
making  them  matters  of  daily  practice,  those  essential  notions  of 
morality,  which  are  common  to  all  doctrines  and  necessary  to  all 
civilized  men.  He  can  accomplish  this  without  adherence  or 
opposition  to  any  of  the  religious  beliefs  of  his  pupils.  He  takes 
the  children  as  they  come  with  their  ideas  and  language  and  family 
beliefs.  He  has  no  other  task  than  to  teach  them  to  draw  therefrom 
what  is  most  precious  from  a  social  standpoint,  that  is  the  doctrine 
of  a  high  morality. 

Object  Proper  and  Limits  of  this  Instruction. 

Secular  moral  instruction  is  distinguished  therefore  from  religious 
instruction  without  contradicting  it.  The  teacher  is  not  the  substi- 
tute for  priest  or  father.  He  joins  his  efforts  mth  theirs  in  making 
of  each  child  an  honest  man.  He  ought  to  dwell  on  the  duties  which 
unite  men,  and  not  on  the  dogmas  which  divide  them.  Every  theo- 
logic  and  philosophic  discussion  is  forbidden  him  by  the  nature  of 
his  duties,  by  ihe  age  of  his  pupils,  by  the  confidence  of  families 
and  of  the  State.  His  is  the  practical  task  of  causing  all  his  pupils 
to  serve  the  effective  apprenticeship  of  a  moral  life. 

Later,  when  they  have  become  citizens,  the  pupils  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  dogmatic  opinions ;  but  they  will  be  in  accord  in  the  prac- 
tice of  putting  the  aim  of  life  as  high  as  possible;  in  having  the 
same  horror  of  everything  base  and  vile,  the  same  admiration  for 
that  which  is  noble  and  generous,  the  same  delicate  sense  of  duty 
in  aspiring  toward  moral  perfection,  cost  what  it  may ;  in  feeling 
themselves  united  in  the  general  religion  of  the  good,  the  beautiful 
and  the  true,  which  is  also  a  form  and  not  the  least  pure  of  religious 
fervor. 

The  teacher  by  his  character,  by  his  conduct,  by  his  language  is 
himself  to  set  the  most  persuasive  of  examples.  In  this  kind  of 
instruction,  that  which  does  not  come  from  the  heart  does  not  go  to  the 
heart.  A  master  who  recites  precepts,  who  speaks  of  duty  without 
con\'iction,  without  fervor,  does  worse  than  waste  his  time ;  he  com. 
mits  a  fault.  A  course  in  morals,  regular  but  cold,  hackneyed  and 
dry,  does  not  teach  morals,  because  it  does  not  inspire  love.  The 
simplest  story  in  which  the  child  finds  a  trace  of  seriousness,  a 


92 

sing-le  sincere  word,  is  worth  more  than  a  long  succession  of 
mechanical  lessons. 

On  the  other  hand  —  and  it  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  formulate 
this  prescription  —  the  master  should  shun  as  a  bad  action  every- 
thing: which,  in  his  language  or  in  his  attitude,  might  disturb  the 
religious  behefs  of  the  children  confided  to  his  care ;  all  that  might 
trouble  them  ;  all  that  might  betray  on  his  part  a  lack  of  respect  or 
reserve. 

His  sole  obligation  —  and  it  is  compatible  with  respect  for  all 
creeds  —  is  to  watch,  in  a  practical  and  paternal  fashion,  the  moral 
development  of  his  pupils,  manifesting  therefor  the  same  degree  of 
solicitude  with  which  he  follows  their  intellectual  and  physical 
development.  He  ought  not  to  feel  that  he  has  performed  his 
duty  toward  any  one  of  his  pupils,  if  he  has  not  done  as  much  for 
the  education  of  the  character  as  for  that  of  the  intelligence.  Then 
only  does  the  teacher  merit  the  title  educator,  and  primary  instruc- 
tion the  name  liberal  education. 

CONSTRUCTION    AND   FURNITURE   OF   LOWER   PRIMARY 

SCHOOLS. 

The  lower  primary  school  comprises : 

1.  A  cloak-room  or  vestibule  serving  as  cloak-room ; 

2.  One  or  more  class-rooms ; 

3.  A  covered  court  (preaw)  with  gymnasium,  and  often  (in  schools 
with  less  than  three  classes)  a  little  workshop  for  manual  training ; 

4.  A  playground  and  garden,  when  possible ; 

5.  Water-closets  and  urinals ; 

6.  Lodgings  for  teacher,  and  for  assistant  teachers ; 

In  addition,  when  necessary,  in  schools  of  more  than  three  classes : 

7.  Lodgings  for  the  concierge; 

8.  Waiting-room  for  parents ; 

9.  Study  for  teacher ; 

10.  Parlor  for  assistant  teachers ; 

11.  Class-room  for  drawing  with  a  closet  for  models ; 

12.  A  workshop  for  manual  training  in  boys'  schools  or  a  room  for 
needlework  and  cutting  in  girls'  schools ; 

13.  A  gymnasium. 

General  Conditions. 

Art.  1. —  The  site  should  be  central,  easy  of  access,  properly 
drained,  removed  from  every  unhealthful,  noisy  or  dangerous  estab- 
lishment, and  at  least  100  meters  distant  from  cemeteries. 


93 

Art.  2. —  The  size  of  the  site  should  be  sufficient  to  allow  about  10 
meters  for  each  pupil ;  it  should  never  be  less  than  500  meters.  The 
school  and  its  annexes  are  to  be  inclosed. 

Art.  3. —  In  placing  the  buildings,  hygienic  conditions  are  to 
meet  due  consideration. 

Art.  4. —  When  the  mayoralty  is  in  the  school  building,  it  should 
be  separated  therefrom.  No  foreign  service  is  to  be  installed  in  the 
school  building. 

Art.  5. —  The  walls  are  not  to  be  less  than  45  centimeters  in  thick- 
ness if  of  stone,  or  35  centimeters  if  of  brick. 

Art.  6. —  Materials  which  are  too  permeable  should  not  be  used. 
Tile  and  slate  should  be  used  for  roofing  in  preference  to  metal. 

Art.  7. —  The  ground  floor  should  be  60  centimeters  above  the  soil. 

Art.  8. —  If  there  is  no  cellar,  the  flooring  should  be  laid  on  an 
impermeable  bed. 

Art.  9. —  In  every  groupe  scolaire  the  buildings  should  be  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  provided  with  separate  entrances.  The  ecole 
maternelle  should  not  be  placed  between  the  boys'  and  girls'  school. 

Art.  10. —  A  groupe  scolaire  should  not  embrace  more  than  750 
pupils, —  300  boys,  300  girls  and  150  infants  for  the  Scole  maternelle. 

Lodgings  of  the  Conciekge. 

Art.  11. —  When  the  school  has  a  concierge,  the  lodgings  should 
be  on  the  ground  floor,  and  should  include :  A  lodge,  a  kitchen,  one 
or  two  rooms,  water-closet  and  cellar.  The  waiting-room  for  parents 
should  be  near  the  janitor's  lodge. 

Cloak-rooms. — Halls. —  Staibw  ays. 

Art.  12. —  Each  class  should  have  a  cloak-room,  but  the  same 
cloak-room  may  be  used  by  two  or  more  contiguous  classes.  The 
cloak-rooms  should  be  provided  with  pegs  for  the  wraps,  and  with 
shelves  for  the  lunch-baskets.  In  rural  schools  the  vestibule  may 
serve  as  cloak-room. 

Art.  13.  —  Each  class  should  have  an  independent  entrance. 
Doors  should  not  open  directly  into  the  street  or  court. 

Art.  14. — If  classes  are  entered  through  halls,  the  same  should  be 
at  least  1.50  meters  wide,  and  should  be  aired  and  lighted  from  without. 

Art.  15. —  Classes  above  the  ground  floor  should  be  reached  by 
straight  stairways.  Every  thirteen  or  sixteen  steps  should  be  sep- 
arated by  a  landing.  The  steps  should  be  1.35  meters  wide,  from 
28  to  30  centimeters  deep,  and  not  more  than  16  centimeters  high. 
The  bars  should  be  13  centimeters  apart,  and  the  hand  rail  should 


94 

be  provided  with  knobs  not  more  than  1  meter  apart.    There  should 
be  a  second  hand-rail  along  the  vraMs. 

Art.  16. —  Every  school  receiving-  300  pupils  above  the  ground 
floor  is  to  be  provided  with  two  stairways. 

Class. 

Art.  17. —  The  maximum  number  of  places  per  class  is  fifty. 

Art.  18. —  The  class-room  should  be  rectangular,  with  a  floor-space 
of  1.25  meters  for  each  pupil.  The  ceiling  should  in  no  case  be  less 
than  4  meters  high. 

Art.  19. —  The  openings  should  be  disposed  so  that  each  desk 
receive  the  proper  light.  The  windows  should  be  rectangular  or 
slightly  arched.  The  space  between  the  top  of  the  windows  and 
the  ceiling  should  be  about  20  centimeters.  The  window-sills  should 
be  smooth  and  about  1.20  meters  above  the  floor.  Where  class- 
rooms are  lighted  from  one  side,  the  light  must  reach  the  pupils 
from  the  left  under  the  following  conditions : 

a.  The  height  of  the  class-room  should  be  about  two-thirds  of  its 
width ; 

h.  Ventilators  should  be  placed  in  the  opposite  walls. 

In  all  cases  the  windows  should  never  be  less  than  8  meters  from 
neighboring  buildings. 

Art.  20. — Windows  should  never  be  placed  opposite  the  teacher's 
desk  or  those  of  the  pupils.  Windows  in  the  ceiling  are  not 
allowed. 

Art.  21. —  The  French  sashes  should  be  divided  into  two  parts 
horizontally  for  ventilating  purposes. 

Art.  22. —  The  ceilings  are  to  be  smooth.  A  north  and  south  line 
is  to  be  traced  thereon.  There  is  to  be  no  cornice.  The  angles 
made  by  the  walls  are  to  be  rounded  (radius  10  centimeters).  The 
walls  are  to  be  smooth,  permitting  frequent  cleansing.  If  not  wain- 
scotted  with  wood,  the  walls  are  to  be  cemented  to  the  height  of  1.20 
meters. 

Art.  23. —  The  floors  are  to  be  of  hard  wood,  laid,  as  far  as  possible, 
on  bitumen.  Pine  may  be  used  in  localities  where  this  wood 
abounds,  provided  the  strips  of  flooring  are  narrow  and  well  oiled. 

Art.  24. —  Single  doors  are  preferable.  They  should  be  90  centi- 
meters wide. 

Art.  25. —  Class-rooms  in  mixed  schools  are  not  to  be  divided  by 
partitions.    Boys  and  girls  are  to  be  grouped  separately. 

Art.  26. —  A  stove  should  be  placed  in  each  class-room  with  a  water 
reservoir  with  surface  for  evaporation.      Stoves  should  be  provided 


96 

with  a  double  metallic  coveringr  or  with  one  of  terra  cotta.  They 
are  to  be  surrounded  with  a  screen  and  are  not  to  have  ovens. 
Stove-pipes  should  never  pass  over  the  heads  of  children.  Pupils 
are  not  to  be  placed  within  less  than  1.25  meters  of  the  stove.  Stoves 
a  feu  direct  are  not  allowed. 
Art.  27 —  Class-rooms  are  to  be  properly  ventilated. 

Salle  fob  Drawing. —  Workshop  fob  Manual  Tbaininq, 

Art.  28. —  Schools  with  four  or  more  classes  are  to  be  provided 
with  a  separate  room  for  drawing.  The  size  of  this  room  should 
allow  1.50  meters  for  each  pupil.   There  is  to  be  a  closet  for  the  models. 

Art.  29. —  All  boys'  schools  should  be  provided  with  a  workshop 
for  manual  training-.  In  schools  with  less  than  three  classes,  this 
workshop  may  be  placed  in  the  court  {'preau).'^ 

In  all  girls'  schools  with  more  than  three  classes,  a  room  is  to  be 
provided  for  instruction  in  needlework  and  cutting. 

Covered  Court  (Preau). —  Dependencies  of  the  Preau. — 
Gymnasium. 

Art.  30. —  Every  school  is  to  be  provided  with  a  covered  court  or 
oJari,  allowing  about  1.25  meters  for  each  pupil.  The  ceiling  is  to  be 
4  meters  high.   This  court  is  to  be  furnished  with  lavatories  and  tables. 

Art.  31. —  There  is  to  be  a  cooking  stove  near  the  court  to  prepare 
or  warm  the  pupils'  food. 

Art.  32. — If  there  is  no  special  gymnasium,  the  gymnastic 
apparatus  may  be  placed  in  the  court. 

Playground.— Garden. 

Art.  33. — The  area  of  the  playground  should  be  sufficient  to  allow 
five  square  meters  for  each  pupil.  It  should  never  be  less  than  200 
square  meters. 

Art.  34. — The  surface  should  be  sanded.  Bitumen,  pavement  or 
cement  may  not  be  used  except  for  walks  and  passages.  Slops 
should  not  cross  the  playground  in  an  open  channel. 

Art.  35. — There  should  be  a  small  garden  in  the  playground, 
with  trees  set  out  at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  buildings.  Benches 
are  to  be  placed  about  the  playground,  which  is  to  have  also  a 
pump  or  fountain. 

In  mixed  schools  the  playground  is  to  be  divided  by  a  screen  of 
lattice  work. 

*  About  two-thirds. of  the  boys'  elemeDtary  schools  in  Paris  now  have  workshops  for 
joininfi:,  turning,  wood-oarvinK  and  forKins.  Manual  trainine  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  course  in  all  lower  primary  schools. 


96 

Privies  and  Urinals.— Vaults. 

Art.  36. — Boys'  schools  are  to  have  two  and  girls'  schools  three 
cabins  for  ea/*h  class.    A  cabin  is  to  be  reserved  for  teachers. 

Art.  37. — The  privies  should  be  so  situated  that  they  may  be 
easily  supervised,  and  that  the  prevailing  winds  blow  not  towai-d 
the  buildings  or  the  playground.  The  cabins  axe  to  be  about  70 
centimeters  wide  and  1.10  meters  deep.  The  doors  should  open 
outwards,  and  should  be  raised  20  centimeters  above  the  floor. 
They  should  be  1.10  meters  high.  The  stone,  cement  or  metal  seat 
should  be  20  centimeters  high,  and  should  incline  toward  the  orifice. 
The  oblong  orifice  should  be  20  centimeters  by  14  centimeters,  and 
about  10  centimeters  from  the  edge. 

In  mixed  schools  there  are  to  be  separate  accommodations  for  the 
sexes. 

Art.  38. — Boys'  schools  are  to  have  urinals  equal  in  number  to  the 
privies  at  least.  The  dimensions  of  the  cabins  are  to  be  about  35 
by  80  by  40  centimeters.    Water  is  to  be  provided  for  cleansing. 

Art.  39. — Same  as  Art.  22,  page  75. 

Art.  40. — Same  as  Art.  23,  page  75. 

Lodgings  of  Teacher. —  Lodgings  of  Assistant  Teachers. 

Art.  41. —  The  lodgings  of  the  teacher  include  a  dining-rooin,  two 
or  three  living-rooms^  a  kitchen,  water-closet  and  cellar.  The  total 
floor-space  should  be  from  70  to  90  square  meters.  The  teacher's 
study  should  be  on  the  ground  floor,  and  as  neai*  as  possible  to  the 
class-rooms  and  parlor. 

Art.  42. —  There  should  be  no  direct  communication  between  the 
class-rooms  and  the  lodgings  of  the  teacher. 

Art.  43. —  The  lodging  of  assistant  teachers  comprise  a  sleeping 
apartment  and  study. 

Art.  44. —  One  stairway  may  serve  for  several  lodgings. 

Art.  45. —  In  schools,  with  four  or  more  classes,  a  room  on  the 

ground  flour  is  to  serve  as  cloak-room  and  refectory  for  the  assistant 

teachers. 

Furnitdre  and  Teaching  Supplies. 

Art.  46. —  Lower  primary  schools  are  to  be  furnished  by  the  com- 
munes with : 

a.  For  each  rlasn  : 

Teachers'  desk  and  platform ;  desks  sufticient  in  number  for  the 
members  of  the  class;  black-board,  craj'on  and  erasers;  reading- 
charts  for  the  elementary  division ;  a  metric  chart  or  compendium ; 


97 

wall-maps  —  the  department,  France,  Europe,  the  world  or  the  plani- 
sphere ;  a  stove  or  heater,  a  coal-hod. 

b.  Simple  tools  of  the  principal  trades;  necessary  materials  for 
the  instruction  in  manual  training ;  guns  and  racks  (for  boys'  schools) ; 
gymnastic  apparatus ;  poles,  rings,  ladders,  knotted  ropes,  horizontal 
and  parallel  bars,  dumb-bells,  horizontal  beam,  rods,  canes,  trapeze. 

c.  Objects  necessary  for  use  in  cleansing  the  school,  brooms, 
buckets,  dusters,  watering  pots,  shovels  ; 

d.  A  book-case ; 

e.  Pegs  for  clothing  and  shelves  for  lunch-baskets ; 

/.  Records  such  as  that  of  matriculation,  the  inventory  of  school 
property,  the  catalogue  of  the  school  library,  the  record  of  the  loans, 
the  account  of  receipts  and  expenditures. 

Art.  47. — A  table  with  drawers,  placed  on  a  platform  from  30  to  32 
centimeters  high  is  to  serve  as  teachers'  desk. 

Art.  48.— Pupils'  desks  should  be  single  or  double.  The  former 
are  preferable.* 

Four  types  are  prescribed  for  schools  in  communes  not  having  an 
Scole  maternelle : 

Type  I  is  for  children  whose  height  is  from  1  meter  to  1.10  meters ; 

Type  n  is  for  those  from  1.11  to  1.20  meters  tall ; 

Type  m  is  for  children  from  1.21  to  1.35  meters  in  height; 

Type  rV  is  for  pupils  from  1.36  to  1.50  meters  tail. 

Type  I  is  not  used  in  schools  which  do  not  receive  children  under 
six. 

A  fifth  type  may  be  used  for  pupils  more  than  1.50  meters  tall. 

The  number  of  the  type  is  to  be  indicated  on  each  desk.  Example : 
m,  1™  21  a  1™  35. 

Teachers  are  to  measure  pupils  annually  at  the  opening  of  the 
term,  and  assign  them  to  the  proper  desks. 

Desks  are  to  be  provided  with  glass  or  porcelain  ink-wells,  placed 
at  the  right  of  each  pupil.  They  are  to  have  a  receptacle  for  books. 
Bars  and  supports  for  the  feet  are  not  allowed. 

Art.  49.  Blackboards  should  be  of  slate. 

Art.  50.  This  article  prescribes  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
tables  and  seats  used  in  drawing. 

*  French  school  furniture  is  better  than  Prussian  thouorh  inferior  to  American.  Desks 
or  Ave  and  six  pupils  are  still  found  in  man^  country  schools  and  in  acme  oitr  schools. 

13 


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110 

TIME-TABLES  IN  LOWER  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

I. 

SCHOOLS  IN  WHICH  THE  THREE  COURSES  ARE  SEPARATE,  OR 
THOSE  IN  WHICH  THE  MIDDLE  AND  ADVANCED  COURSES 
ALONE  ARE  TOGETHER. 

Elementaey  Course 


Morning. 

8.30  to    9.00.. 

.  Moral  or  civic  iustructlon. 

9.00  to    9.30.. 

.  Beading. 

9.30  to  10.00.. 

.  Arithmetic  or!iuetrio  system. 

10.00  to  10.15.. 

.  Becess. 

10.16  to  11.00.. 

.  Frencli. 

11.00  to  11.30.. 

.  Writinjc. 

Afternoon. 

1.00  to    1.30.. 

.  History  or  geography. 

1.30  to    2.00.. 

.  Reading. 

2.00  to    2.30.. 

.  Drawing,  manual  training,  military  exercises. 

2.30  to    2.46.. 

.  Recess. 

2.45  to    3.15.. 

.  Writing. 

3.15  to    4.00.. 

.  Object-lessons  and  singing. 

8.30  to 

9.00 

9.00  to  10.00. 

10.00  to  10.15. 

10.16  to  11.00. 

11.00  to  11.30. 

1.00  to 

2.00. 

2.00  to 

2.30. 

2.30  to 

2.45. 

2.45  to 

3.30. 

3.30  to 

4.00., 

Middle  and  Advanced  Courses. 

Morning. 
Moral  or  civic  instruction. 
Arithmetic,  metric  system,  geometry. 
Recess. 
French. 
Writing  (middle  course),  composition  (advanced  course). 

Afternoon. 
History  or  geography. 
Reading ;  memory  exercises. 
Recess. 

Drawing,  singing,  manual  training  or  composition. 
Physical  and  natural  sciences;  agriculture  and  horticulture. 


n. 

Ungraded  Schools. 
Elementary  course. 

8.30  to   9.00...  Moral  and  civic  Instruction. 

9.00  to  10.00...  Reading,  arithmetic  or  metric  system. 
10.00  to  10.15...  Recess. 

10.16  to  11.00...  Various  exercises  in  language  and  grammar. 
11.00  to  11.30...  Writing. 

1.00  to   2.00.. .  Reading,  talks  on  history  and  geography. 

2.00  to   2.30...  Writing. 

2.30  to    2.4.5...  Rece.s8. 

2.45  to   3.30...  Drawing,  singing,  and  manual  training. 

3.30  to   4.00...  Object-lessons  or  reading. 


Ill 

Middle  and  advanced  courses, 

8.30  to   9.00...  Moral  and  oivlo  Instmotlon. 

9.00  to  10.00...  Arithmetic,  metric  system,  Keometry. 
10.00  to  10.16...  Recens. 
10.16  to  11.00...  French. 
11.00  to  11.30...  Writinsr. 

1.00  to   a.oo...  HistoryorReoflrraphy. 

9.00  to   9.30...  Readlns:  memory  exercises. 

9.80  to   3.45...  Recess. 

9.46  to   3.30...  DrawiDK,  siDglnt;,  and  manual  trainincT, 

8.S0  to   4.00.. .  Physical  and  natural  sciences ;  aKrlculture  and  horticulture. 


TWENTY-rmST  CHAPTEK. 
UPPER  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  AND  COURS  COMPL^MENTAIRES. 

Establishments  for  upper  primary  instruction  take  the  name  cours 
^complementaires  if  annexed  to  primary  schools  and  imder  the  same 
direction.  They  are  called  upper  primary  schools  if  in  a  se]3arate 
building-  and  under  other  direction. 

The  duiation  of  the  course  in  the  cours  complemenlaires  is  not  to 
exceed  two  years.  There  are  two  divisions  of  the  pupils,  which  may 
be  united  under  one  teacher. 

The  course  in  upper  primary  schools  is  at  least  two  years  in 
lenjjth.  These  schools  are  full  course  (de  plein  exercice)  if  the  course 
Is  three  years  or  more  in  lengrth. 

No  pupil  may  be  received  either  in  an  upper  primary  school  or  in 
a  complementary  course  who  does  not  hold  the  certificate  of  primary 
studies  (page  54). 

The  complementary  courses  should  have  separate  class-rooms. 
The  upper  primary  school  should  have  as  many  class-rooms  as  there 
are  years  in  the  course  of  study.  It  should  have  a  room  for  instruc- 
tion in  drawing",  a  gymnasium  and  a  department  for  manual  training. 

The  course  of  study  in  cours  complemenlaires  and  upper  primary 
schools  is  given  below  (page  113). 

During  the  first  three  years  of  upper  primary  instruction,  there 
should  be  six  hours  of  class-work  daily  (Sundays  and  Thursdays 
excepted).  The  weekly  division  of  time  should  be  about  as  follows : 
Nine  hours  for  literary  instruction  (morals,  civics,  the  French 
language,  history  and  geography) ;  nine  hours  for  scientific  instruc- 
tion (mathematics,  physical  and  natiu-al  science) ;  four  hours  for  the 
modern  languages;  three  hours  for  drawing;  four  hours  for  manual 
training ;  one  hour  for  music. 

Gymnastic  and  military  exercises  should  be  held  outside  these 
hours  of  class-work. 


112 

In  the  fourth  year  of  upper  primary  instruction  and  later,  the 
time  devoted  'to  manual  training  and  to  technical  instruction  may 
be  increased,  but  at  least  ten  hours  weekly  should  be  reserved  for 
the  other  subjects. 

Instruction  in  drawing-,  music,  modem  langnages,  gymnastics  and 
manual  training  should  be  confided,  as  far  as  "possible,  to  teachers 
attached  to  the  school. 

Pupils  seeking  admission  to  upper  primary  schools  must  take  the 
entrance  examination  as  the  basis  of  classification. 

The  regulations  for  holidays,  vacations,  discipline,  the  construc- 
tion and  furnishing  of  school  buildings,  etc.,  correspond  very  closely 
with  those  enforced  in  lower  primary  schools. 

Pupils  more  than  18  years  of  age  are  not  permitted  to  frequent 
the  upper  primary  schools. 

Ecoles  matemeUes,  lower  and  upper  primary  schools  and  normal 
schools  are  gratuitous. 

Scholarships  are  awarded  annually  to  the  best  pupils  in  the  upper 
primary  schools.  They  are  good  for  three  school  years  and  the 
time  may  be  extended  to  four  years.  These  scholarships  pay  the 
whole  or  a  portion  of  the  living  expenses  of  the  holders  in  Frf  Jice,  or 
permit  them  to  study  in  a  foreign  country. 

The  upper  primary  schools  referred  to  in  this  chapter  do  not 
include  the  technical  or  manual  training  schools,  but  only  those 
which  are  under  the  sole  charge  of  the  minister  of  public 
instruction. 

The  statistics  for  1887  show  that  56  per  cent  of  the  graduates  of 
these  schools  devoted  themselves  to  agriculture,  commerce  or  indus- 
try, and  17  per  cent  entered  higher  schools. 

In  1884,  including  the  320  complementary  courses,  there  were  559 
of  these  establishments,  of  which  419  were  for  boys,  and  140  for 
girls ;  539  were  public  schools. 

In  1887,  including  the  431  complementary  courses,  there  were  733 
of  these  establishments,  of  which  510  were  for  boys,  and  223  for 
girls;  686  were  public  schools.  Two  hundred  and  five  boys  and  76 
girls'  complementary  courses  were  for  one  year;  the  rest  for  two 
years.  Eighty-three  schools  for  boys  and  30  for  girls  had  a  two 
years'  course ;  101  schools  for  boys  and  41  for  girls  had  a  three  years' 
course. 

In  1887,  10,052  pupils  attended  the  complementary  courses,  which 
were  all  public ;  20,673  attended  the  public  and  7,716  the  private 
schools. 


113 


OFFICIAL  PROGRAMS  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  UPPER  PRIMARY 
SCHOOLS  AND  COURS  COMPLEMENTAIRES. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND  PREPARATION  FOR  PROFESSIONAL 
APPRENTICESHIP. 

1.  Gymnastics. 

Ootnplementarv  courses.— ContinuatloD  of  the  exercises  of  the  advanced  course  In 
lower  primary  schools.  Follow  the  special  manuals  for  each  sex,  published  by  the 
ministry. 

Upper  jnHmarv  schools.— Movements  In  a  body.    Exercises  with  apparatus. 

2.  Military  Exercises  for  the  Boys. 

Complementarv  courses.— Continuation  of  the  exercises  of  the  advanced  course  In 
lower  primary  schools. 

Upper  primary  sc/iooZs.— Military  drill:  Review  without  arms.  Formation  in  open 
order.  Military  and  topographic  marches.  Exercises  preparatory  to  tareet-practlce. 
Practical  study  of  the  mechanism  of  the  Run.  Conform  with  the  special  manual  pub- 
lished by  the  ministries  of  public  instruction  and  of  war. 

3.  Manual  Training  for  the  Boys. 

Complementarv  cow>'ses.— Same  as  in  the  upper  primary  schools. 

t7|>per  pj-imari/sc/ioo/s.— Wood-workinR.  Principal  woods  used  In  structures  or  in 
machines.  Their  qualities  and  uses.  Principal  tools  employed  in  workinc:  wood. 
SawiuR,  boriuR,  planinR,  turninR,  joininR,  iron-workinR.  Properties,  varieties,  quali- 
ties and  uses  of  iron.  Principal  tools  used  usually  in  workinR  iron.  FilinR,  hammeriuR, 
forRiuR,  solderinR,  euRiavinR,  drilliuR,  turninR,  joininR,  adjustiuR.  WorkinR  drawluRS 
of  simple  objects,  and  construction  of  the  objects  from  the  drawiuRS. 

4.  Manual  Training  for  the  Girls. 

Complementarv  courses.—  Same  as  in  the  upper  primary  schools  with  less  development. 
Upper  primary  schools.— In  the  followiuR  divisions: 

a.  Housekeeping. 

OrRanization  and  maintenance  of  the  household. 
HeatinR.    LlRhtiuR. 
Maintenance  of  the  furniture. 
Care  of  clothiQR  and  linen. 
WashluR.    Wash-house.    IronlUR. 

Flour.    BakinR.    Furnace.    Bread-bakinR.    Pastry-work. 
Household  provisions.    Wood.    Coal.    DrlnkiuR-water. 
Wine  and  its  care.    VlneRar. 
Cider.   Beer.    Coffee.    Oil.    Grease.   SuRar. 
Preservation  and  cookinR  of  meat. 
Qualities  and  choice  of  meats. 
Elementary  principles  of  the  cuisine. 
Kettle.    Broth.    FryluR.    RoastiuR. 
Game.    Fish. 

Preservation  and  cookioR  of  veRCtables. 

Preservation  of  fruits.    Fruit-Rarden.    PackluR  and  transportation  of  fruits. 
Manufacture  of  preserves,  brandied  fruits,  syrups,  liqueurs. 
Household  accounts. 

N.  B.—  The  pupils  should  have  as  much  practical  household  work  as  possible  at  home. 
15 


114 

6.  Gardening. 

Summani  notions  oftigricuUure.— Soil,  manures  and  improTements.  Different  kinds  of 
husbandry. 

Oardpn.— Oeneral  arranerement;  paths,  borders,  walls,  garden  works  and  tools. 

JV«i/-florde/i.— General  principles  of  the  culture  of  fruit  trees,  with  application  to  the 
varieties  best  suited  to  the  district.  Diseases  among  fruit-trees.  Destruction  of  harm- 
ful insects. 

KUchen-aarden,—Y&rletiQB,  culture  and  harvesting  of  vegetables.  Harvesting  and 
preservation  of  grains.    Forced  cultivation :  hotbeds,  cold-frames,  plant-protectors. 

Notions  o/jloricutture.— Flowers  cultivated  for  ornament  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
perfumery. 

c.  Farming. 

JVirm.— Cow-house  and  dairy.  General  notions  of  the  manufacture  of  butter  and 
cheese. 

Summary  notions  of  the  sheep-fold  and  of  the  keeping  of  hogs.  Poultry-yard.  Bear- 
ing and  fattening  of  poultry.    Pigeons.    Babbits.    Bees  and  silk-worms. 

d.  Sewing. 

Different  stitches.    Darning.    Knitting.    Patching. 

Joining  and  setting  together.    Linen.    Chemises  and  shirts  for  men  and  boys. 

Pantaloons,  waistcoats,  bonnets,  etc. 

Gutting  and  making  articles  of  clothing.  Study  of  patterns.  Princess  robe.  Basque. 
Clothing  for  children. 

N.  B.—  The  various  parts  of  this  program  should  be  developed  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  locality. 

INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION. 

1.  Keading. 

Complementaru  courses.—  Exercises  in  reading  aloud,  with  explanation ;  exercises  in 
elocution  and  in  pronunciation.  Beading  aloud  by  teacher  and  pupils,  with  explana- 
tion and  analysis ;  recitation ;  exercises  in  diction  in  connection  with  cla.4sic  texts. 

2.  Wbiting. 

Complementary  courses.— Bunning  hand,  round  hand,  bdtarde,  commercial  hand. 
Upper  primary  sc/ioo^s.— Bunning  hand,   round  hand,   bdtarde,    commercial  hand, 
caligraphy. 

3.  Fbench  Language  and  Elements  of  Liteeature. 

Complementary  cowrses. —Be view  of  the  advanced  course  in  lower  primary  schools. 

Continuation  of  the  same  exerclees  with  a  little  more  development. 

Oral  exercises,  accounts  stated  and  explained  aloud,  dictations  and  grammatio  exer- 
cises on  the  essential  rules  of  syntax,  and  especially  reading  aloud  by  teacher  and 
pupils,  with  explanations. 

Upperprimary  schools.— RevlQw  and  development  of  the  advanced  course  in  lower 
primary  schools.  Methodic  review  of  syntax;  formation  of  words,  families  of  words. 
Exercises  in  distinguishing  synonyms.  Exercises  on  the  proposition.  Coordination 
and  subordination  of  the  members  of  sentences. 

Elementary  principles  of  composition ;  application  of  these  principles  to  narrations 
letters,  reports,  etc. 

Elementary  notions  of  the  history  of  French  literature.  Pupils  are  to  be  exercised. 
In  writing  business  letters  and  compositions  graduated  in  point  of  difficulty,  in  describ- 
ing objects  previously  examined  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  in  summing  up  a 
selection  in  reading  or  a  lesson  in  discussing  an  historic  judgment  or  a  moral  thought, 
etc.  Pupils  are  to  have  practical  oral  exercises  similar  to  those  In  writing  referred  to 
above. 


115 

4,   HiSTOKY. 

Complementaru  cowrsea,— Methodic  review  of  the  history  of  Frauce :  formation  of  the 
preclDct  of  jurisdiction;  proKress  of  national  institutions;  great  events  of  modem 
times. 

Uitper ttrimaru  HchooU.—'RivH.lry  between  France  and  EsKland:  hundred  years'  war. 
The  Turks  in  Europe;  fall  of  Constantinople. 

Oreat  inventions ;  mariner's  compass,  powder,  paper,  printing.  Discovery  of  the  new 
world. 

Oharles  YII  and  Louis  XI.    The  wars  in  Italy. 

Francis  I.— StruKKle  between  France  and  Austria.    The  RetMiaaance. 

The  Reformation  and  reilRious  wars. 

Henry  IV.— The  edict  of  Nantes:  Sully, 

Richelieu  and  Mazarln.— Treaties  of  Westphalia  and  of  the  Pyrenees. 

Louis  XIV.— Wars  and  conquests.  Revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  C!oIbert, 
Louvois.  Vauban.    Arts  and  letters  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Louis  XV.— The  Resrency ;  the  system  of  law.  Decline  of  the  French  power:  rise  of 
Prussia  and  of  Russia;  maritime  struKKle  between  France  and  England;  the  Indies 
and  Canada.    Philosophers  and  economists. 

Louis  XVI.— Turgot,  Necker.    American  war.     Convocation  of   the  ^tats  g^n^avx. 

Formation  of  French  territory  under  the  anclont  monarchy.  Institutions  before  1789. 
Btate  of  France  In  1789  (the  royal  power  and  the  Etala  g^neraur,  the  Ti-ois  ordres,  corpora- 
tions, privileges,  justice,  the  army,  taxes,  agriculture,  the  colonies,  etc.). 

The  Constituent  Assembly,  its  reforms.     The  principles  of  1789.    Constitution  of 

1791. 

The  Legislative  Assembly. 

The  Convention.  Establishment  of  the  Republic.  The  factions.  Trial  and  death  of 
Louis  XVI.  Wars.  Treaty  of  Bale.  Institutions  and  creations  of  the  Convention. 
Constitution  of  the  year  III. 

The  Directory.    Bonaparte.    The  18  Brumaire, 

Constitution  of  the  year  YIII.  The  institutions  of  the  Consulate.  The  civil  code. 
The  peace  of  Amiens. 

The  Empire.    The  continental  blockade.    The  treaties  of  181B. 

The  Restauration.  The  charter,  the  parliamentary  regime.  Capture  of  Algiers.  The 
monarchy  of  July.  The  Republic  of  1848.  The  Second  Empire.  The  events  of  1870;  the 
treaty  of  Frankfurt.    Constitutional  laws. 

5.  Geography. 

(7omp2em«n^ari/cour8«8.— Physical  and  political  geography  of  Europe;  general  study 
of  the  geography  of  other  parts  of  the  world ;  special  study  of  the  geography  of  France, 
of  Algeria  and  of  the  French  colonies;  map-drawing  from  memory. 

Upper  primary  schoola.—  The  continents.    Principal  reliefs  of  the  soil. 

Oceans  and  their  currents.    Qreat  river  basing. 

Asia.  Africa.  America,  Oceanica.    Principal  countries. 

European  colonies.    Staple  productions. 

Commercial  relations  of  the  Ave  parts  of  the  world  with  each  other  and  especially 
with  Prance. 

Europe.    General  conflgurntion.    Mountain  systems. 

Distribution  of  water.    DifTerent  climates. 

European  countries;  languages,  religions,  governments. 

Priocipal  industrial  and  comm«>rcial  centers.    Ways  of  communication. 

R->la»ion3  of  France  with  the  different  countries  of  Europe. 

France.    Configuration  nnd  extent    Boundaries. 

Reliefs  of  the  soil :  mountains,  plateaus  and  plains. 

Water  systems;  declivities  and  basins;  rivers  and  tributaries;  lakes,  ponds,  swamps 
etc. 

Political  geography.    Ancient  provlj)ce0  and  departments. 

Administrative  division^ 


116 

Economic  KeoKraphy.    Zones  of  oaltnre.   Ooal-flelds. 

Principal  agricultural  and  Industrial  productions.    Ways  of  communication:  canals, 
hlKhways,  railways. 
Algeria  and  the  colonies. 

6.  Civics,  Common  Law  and  Notions  of  Political  Economy. 

Gomplementaru  courses.—  Review  of  the  advanced  course  in  lower  primary  schools. 

Upper  primary  sc7ioote.— Development  of  the  program  of  the  advanced  course  in  lower 
primary  schools. 

More  particular  notions  of  the  political,  financial,  administrative  and  judicial 
organization  of  France. 

Elementary  notions  of  civil  law  (the  family  and  the  civil  state,  the  laws  of  property, 
Inheritances,  contracts)  and  of  commercial  law  (merchants,  commercial  societies,  bills 
of  exchange,  orders,  checks). 

Qeneral  notions  of  political  economy. 

Production  of  wealth.  Factors  In  production;  material,  work,  economy,  capital, 
property. 

Circulation  and  distribution  of  wealth .    Exchange,  money,  credit,  wages  and  Interest. 

Consumption  of  wealth.  Productive  and  unproductive  consumption:  the  question  of 
luxury :  expenses  of  the  State:  taxes,  the  budget. 

7.  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  Surveying  and  Accounting. 

Gomplementaru  courses.— Tieview  and  development  of  the  course  in  lower  primary 
schools. 
Upper primarv  scJiools.— Under  the  following  heads: 

a.  Arithmetic. 

Operations  with  whole  numbers.  Short  methods  in  oral  and  written  work.  Simple 
characters  of  divisibility.  Proof  by  9  of  the  multiplication  and  division.  Greatest  com- 
mon divisor  of  two  numbers.  Decomposition  of  numbers  into  prime  factors.  Composi- 
tion of  the  greatest  common  divisor  and  of  the  least  common  multiple  of  several  num- 
bers. Common  fractions.  Simplification  of  fractions.  Reduction  of  fractions  to  a 
common  denominator.  Operations  with  fractions.  Decimal  fractions.  Operations 
with  decimal  fractions.  Reduction  of  common  to  decimal  fractions.  Square  root 
Practice  in  extracting  the  square  root  of  numbers. 

Simple  notions  of  ratios  and  proportions.    Proportional  magnitudes. 

Varied  problems:  Simple  interest.  Discount.  Exchange.  Public  fund&  Stocks. 
Obligations.    Insurance.    Banking.    Partnership.    Taxes.    Alligation. 

6.  Metric  system. 
Numerous  applications,  principally  to  the  measure  of  surfaces  and  of  simple  volumes. 

c.  Algebra. 

Elements  of  algebraic  calculation. 

Solution  of  numeric  equations  of  the  first  degree  with  one  and  several  unknown 
quantities. 

Application  to  problems  in  arithmetic. 

Solution  of  equations  of  the  first  degree.    Problems  and  numeric  exercises. 

Solution  of  equations  of  the  second  degree  with  one  unknown  quantity;  application 
to  problems  in  arithmetic  and  geometry. 

Principal  properties  of  arithmetic  and  geometric  progressions. 

General  ideas  of  logarithms.    Use  of  logarithmic  tables  with  four  or  five  decimals. 

Applications  to  compound  Interest  and  to  annuities. 

d.  Geometry. 

Plane  geometry  and  its  applications.  General  method  employed  in  making  a  geo- 
metric plan.  Use  of  instruments.  Construction  of  plans.  The  scale.  Simple  topo- 
graphic problems. 

Elementary  notions  of  solid  geometry,  with  applications.  Elements  of  trigonometry, 
with  the  most  common  application& 


117 

e.  Surveying. 

Practical  exercises  Id  sarveylnff.  Computations  from  maps.  Problems  lo  sarrerlnff. 
Land  reRlstratlon.  LevellnK.  Use  of  the  water  level.  BlKbtincr.  Beadlnjc  of  topo- 
crraphic  charts. 

/.  First  notions  of  business  and  of  accounting. 

Merchants.  BuBln<)SB  transactions.  Purchases  aod  sales.  Memoranda.  Invoices. 
Receipts.  Simple  bills.  Bills  payable  to  order.  Bills  of  ezchanRe.  Indorsement. 
Acceptance.  Protest  Drafts.  Checks.  Nesotlation  of  commercial  paper.  Discount 
OommlsBlon.  Bookkeeping.  Notions  of  single-entry  bookkeepins.  Insufficiency  of 
the  method  of  sinKle  entry.  Double-entry  bookkeepiuK.  Failure.  Arraneement  with 
creditors.    Rehabilitation.    Bankruptcy. 

8.  Elements  of  the  Physical  Sciences. 

Camplementaru  rou?-8e«.— First  notions  of  physics  and  of  chemistry,  tauorht  essentially 
by  means  of  simple  experiments  and  elementary  explanations. 

WelRht ;  its  effects ;  lever ;  scales. 

Pressure  exerted  by  liauids. 

Atmospheric  pressure,  barometer. 

Simple  experiments  in  heatllRht,  electricity,  magnetism  (thermometer,  steam  encrlne. 
lisrhtnine-rod,  telegraph,  mariner's  compass). 

Ideas  of  simple  bodies,  of  composite  bodies.    Metals  and  common  salts. 

Upper vrimarv  8c/too2«.— Under  the  heads: 

a.  Physics. 

Usual  notions  on  the  three  states  of  bodies,  the  properties  of  liquids  and  erases,  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  the  barometer. 

Experimental  notions  on  the  effects  of  heat,  the  thermometer,  wind,  rain,  snow :  on 
the  principal  electric  phenomena,  the  liKhtnine-rod. 

Equilibrium  of  liquids,  communlcatinfc  vessels. 

Hydraulic  press,  floating  bodies,  use  of  areometers. 

Mariotte's  law.    Manometers.    Pumps.    Siphon. 

Expansion  of  bodies  by  heat    Applications.    Conductivity  and  appiicatioas. 

Sources  of  heat    Heating  of  solids  or  liquids  and  of  the  air  of  dwelllnKs  and  shops. 

Changes  of  state:  Fusion,  evaporation,  bolliuK.  distillation.  Use  of  steam  as  a  motive 
force.  Electric  phenomena.  Batteries,  applications  of  electricity,  electric  lUrht. 
teleorraphy. 

Maornets,  use  of  the  mariner's  compas&    Electro-macrnets. 

Production  of  sound.    Echo. 

Reflection  of  lisht,  plane  mirror,  concave  mirror. 

Lenses:  uses  of  the  maRnifyinR  slass,  of  the  microscope,  of  spectacles. 

Notions  of  physical  mechanics.    Motions.    Forces.    Idea  of  the  working  of  torcea. 

Steam  motors. 

Industrial  applications  suited  to  the  locality. 


6.  Chemistry. 


Exercises  in  observation  and  examination  of  familiar  facts  Introductory  to  the  study 
of  chemistry. 

Water,  air,  their  importance  in  tteoloffy  and  in  animal  and  vesetable  life.  Simple 
experiments  on  the  properties  of  water  and  of  air.    Analysis  and  synthesis  of  water. 

Metalloids  and  the  most  useful  metals. 

Oxytcen.  Hydrogen.  Nitrosen.  Sulphur.  Chlorine.  Phosphorus.  Carbon.  Iron 
Zinc.    Tin.    Lead.    Copper.    Mercury.    Silver.    Gold.    Platinum. 

Notions  of  acids,  oxides  and  salts. 

Notions  of  organic  chemistry:  From  an  itulastrial  gtatulpoint:  Illuminating  sas. 
Benzine.  Turpentine.  Petroleum.  Soap.  The  candle.  Starch.  SuRar.  Manufacture 
of  alcohols.  Paper.  Natural  and  artificial  oolorlnR  matter.  DyeUur.  Preservation  of 
wood.    TannluR. 


118 

From  an  aoriculhn-al  standpoint:  Manufacture  of  bread.  Fermented  liqueurs  (wine, 
beer,  elder).  Cheeses.  Composition  of  foods.  Ekrs.  Milk.  Blood.  Flesh.  Pre- 
servation of  alimentary  articles. 

Chemical  laws.  Notions  of  eau  ivalents,  of  the  composition  of  bodies  In  weleht  and 
volume. 

Principal  industrial  applications. 

9.  Elements  of  the  Natural  Sciences. 

Complementary  courses.  Review  with. extension  of  the  advanced  course  In  lower 
primary  schools. 

Upper  primary  schools.    Elementary  notions  of  the  human  organization. 

Enumeration  of  the  principal  or(;ans  and  their  functions. 

Functions  of  nutrition.  Functions  of  relation.  Notions  of  domestic  animals  and 
cutlvated  plants  of  the  locality. 

Useful  and  harmful  animals  and  plants,  especially  those  found  In  France  and  In  the 
locality. 

The  most  common  and  useful  minerals  of  the  country. 

Glasslflcation  of  animals.  Elementary  study  of  vertebrates,  dwelling  particularly  on 
domestic  animals.  Mammals  and  their  principal  orders.  Birds,  nesting  and  migra- 
tions; insectivorous  species.  Scaly  reptiles.  Batracians  and  their  metamorphoses. 
Fish,  common  alimentary  species  of  salt  and  fresh  water. 

Invertebrates.  Summary  study  of  Insects  and  their  metamorphoses.  Indication  of 
the  principal,  useful  and  harmful  species  of  the  neighborhood.  Summary  notions  of 
the  mollusca,  principally  those  which  serve  for  food  and  Industry. 

Notions  of  the  functions  of  vegetables  and  of  their  classification.  Indication  of  the 
most  Important  vegetables. 

Notions  of  geology.  Study  chiefly  the  geology  of  the  locality.  Common  phenomena. 
Brief  notice  of  the  composition  and  structure  of  rocks ;  of  geologic  forces ;  of  historic 
geology. 

Hygiene.  Advice  relative  to  the  care  of  the  body;  nourishment,  clothing,  heating, 
lighting. 

Advice  touching  the  best  sanitary  conditions  of  the  home;  auarters  of  domestic 
animals. 

Public  hygiene :  Rural  sanitary  conditions,  irrigation,  drainage,  draining  of  swamps. 
Salubrity  of  cities,  sewers  and  water-closets ;  work-shops,  factories,  wood-yards.  First 
steps  to  take  In  cases  of  accident  while  awaiting  the  arrival  of  a  physician.  Precautions 
to  take  In  case  of  epidemics. 

10.  Agriculture  and  Horticulture. 

Complemenlary  cou>-ges.— Same  program  as  In  upper  primary  schools,  but  with  less 
development 

Upper  primary  sc/tooZs.— Practical  notions  of  vegetation,  of  the  growth  of  vegetables 
of  their  different  modes  of  reproduction  (grains,  slips,  grafting),  of  the  nature  of  differ- 
ent soils,  of  manures  and  their  proper  use.  of  fallowing. 

Knowledge  and  use  of  agricultural  Implements.    Principal  agricultural  machines. 

Principal  operations  of  agriculture:  Clearing,  planting,  transplanting,  drainage, 
irrigation. 

Principal  agricultural  products  of  France  and  particularly  of  the  locality  (cereals, 
alimentary  roots  and  tubers,  fodder,  oleaginous  and  textile  plants,  grape-culture). 

Diseases  of  plants  and  remedies ;  parasitic  vegetables. 

Vegetables,  fruits  and  flowers.    Use  of  green-houses. 

Care  of  fruit  tiees. 

Care  of  domestic  animals.    Culture  of  bees. 

11.  Drawing. 

Complementary  cowj-ses.— Continuation  of  primary  instruction,  with  application  of  the 
following  program : 

Free-hand  drawing.  Drawing,  from  copy  and  model,  of  purely  geometric  ornaments : 
Moldings,  ovolo . ,  rais  de  coeur,  perles,  fretwork,  etc. 


119 

DrawlnflT,  from  copy  and  model,  of  ornaments  whose  elements  are  taken  from  the 
veffetable  kloKdom;  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits,  palms,  foliage. 

Exercises  la  drawing  from  memory. 

Elementary  Ideas  of  the  styles  of  architecture  (civen  on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher 
(three  lessons). 

DrawinK  of  the  human  head ;  Its  parts,  its  proportions. 

Geometric  drawing.  Execution  on  paper,  with  the  aid  of  instruments,  of  (reometrlo 
flcrures  which  have  been  drawn  on  the  blackboard  in  the  middle  course. 

Use  of  colors. 

DrawinKs  reproducins  decorative  motives  for  plane  surfaces  or  those  In  feeble  relief: 
Pavements,  floorings.  slazlnKs,  panels,  oeilinKS. 

DrawluKB  In  India  ink  and  in  color  of  some  of  these  designs. 

Representation  of  Keometric  solids  and  of  simple  objects,  such  as  ordinary  pieces  of 
furniture,  etc.  Use  of  colors  to  express  the  nature  of  materials.  Ck>lorinK  of  plans  and 
charts. 

Uppei'  primaru  schooJa.—  B&mB  proi^ram  as  for  the  complementary  courses. 

Directions  furnished  by  the  Administration  des  Beaux-arts  to  fix  the  mean  of  this 
course,  and,  conseauently,  that  of  the  examinations. 

Geometric  Drawing. 
0.  Figures  in  plane  geometry. 

To  execute  at  a  flxed  scale,  after  a  siven  deslKU,  a  decorative  motive  for  a  plane  sur- 
face ( pavements,  flooring,  elaziuK.) 

To  color  the  different  parts  either  accordiuK  to  the  directions  siven  in  the  desifm  or  In 
some  other  manner,  producing  a  pleasinR  effect 

6.  Projection. 

To  execute  at  a  flxed  scale,  after  a  (dven  desisrn,  the  drawlns  by  horizontal  projection 
(plan)  and  by  vertical  projection  (elevation)  of  a  creometrlc  solid. 
To  shift  this  solid  as  directed  and  to  Kive  the  new  projections. 

c.  Penetration. 

To  execute  at  a  flxed  scale,  after  a  Riven  desiffn,  the  drawine  by  projection  (plan, 
elevation)  of  two  solids  which  penetrate. 

The  development  of  the  surfaces  of  the  solids  is  to  be  (clven  if  they  are  susceptible  of 
development. 

Note.—  These  cases  of  penetration  are  to  be  very  simple.  The  number  is  to  be  limited 
and  the  application  Is  to  be  pointed  out  at  once.  Examples:  sphere  and  refrular  prism 
(square  or  hexaKonal)  whose  axis  passes  through  the  center  of  the  sphere.  (Application 
to  the  drawing  of  nuts  and  screws).  Cylinders  of  the  same  diameter  (application  to  an 
elbowed  pipe),  etc. 

d.  Perspective. 

To  represent,  by  linear  perspective,  simple  solids  (cube,  prism,  cylinder),  isolated, 
juxtaposited  or  superposited  but  not  penetrating. 

The  pupils  are  to  receive  a  design  on  which  the  dlmenpions  of  the  solids  are  given> 
their  respective  positions,  and  the  point  of  view,  as  well  as  the  dimensions  of  the  per- 
spective drawing. 

e.  Designs. 

Parts  of  machines  and  plans  of  buildings: 

To  execute  at  a  flxed  scale,  after  a  design,  the  drawing  of  a  part  of  a  machine  or  of  a 
plan  of  a  building. 

Ornamental  dranoing. 

a.  These  drawings  are  always  from  models. 

b.  The  conditions  and  the  rules  for  the  correction  of  the  drawings  are  determined  in 
the  decree  of  May  1, 1883. 


120 

12.  Singing. 

Complementary  courses,— Continuation  of  the  exercises  of  the  lower  primary  school. 
Upper  primary  .sc/(Oo/s.— Exercises  of  diction,  of  intonation  and  of  time. 
SinKinK  of  a  melody  with  words. 
Execution  of  choruses  In  several  parts. 

Study  of  solfege :  Knowledge  of  the  sIkus,  of  the  intervals,  of  the  tones,  of  the  chanses, 
of  the  measures,  of  the  rhythms  and  of  the  keys. 
BeadinK  at  sight  of  a  lesson  of  solfege  in  Iceys  of  sol,  fa  and  u& 
Musical  dictation  with  transposition  of  iceys. 
General  principles  of  music. 

13.  Modern  Languages. 

Complementary  courses.— A.B  in  the  upper  primary  schools. 

Upper  primary  sc/tooZs.— Readinfir  and  writing.  Translations  and  explanations. 
Practical  notions  of  grammar.  Conversation  on  a  subject  taken  from  every-day  life 
from  manual  training,  from  number,  from  the  life  of  plants  and  animals,  from  voyages, 
etc.  Written  translation  at  sight  of  simple  sentences  chosen  in  the  same  way.  Ques- 
tions on  words  or  constructions  used  in  the  exercises.  Oral  and  written  exercises. 
Simple  compositions,  business  letters,  etc. 

MORAL  EDUCATION. 

Gomplem^nLarv  courses.— Instruction  is  of  the  same  character  as  In  the  lower  primary 
schools.  It  is  essentially  practical  and  experimental.  Its  object  is  to  form  and  exercise 
the  moral  sense  of  the  pupil. 

The  methods  of  instruction  are  conversations,  and  practical  exercises  tending  to  put 
into  action  what  has  been  learned.  In  addition  thereto  the  course  comprises  a  regular 
series  of  lessons  forming  the  methodic  review  of  the  studies  of  the  middle  and  advanced 
classes  in  the  lower  primary  school.    These  lessons  follow  the  program  given  below: 

a.  r/ie/aniiZi/.— Duties  of  parents  and  children;  reciprocal  duties  of  masters  and 
servants ;  family  spirit ; 

6.  /Sopiefy.— Necessity  and  benefits  of  society,  justice,  solidarity,  fraternity. 

Applications  and  developments  of  the  ideas  of  justice:  Respect  for  human  life  and 
liberty,  respect  for  property,  respect  for  promises,  respect  for  the  honor  and  reputation 
of  others.    Probity,  equity,  loyalty,  delicacy.    Respect  for  opinions  and  beliefs. 

Applications  and  developments  of  the  Idea  of  charity  or  of  fraternity.  Its  dififerent 
degrees ;  duties  of  benevolence,  tolerance,  clemency,  etc.  Devotion,  the  supreme  form 
of  charity;  show  that  it  has  a  place  in  every-day  life. 

c.  The  country.— ^YxbX  man  owes  his  country  (obedience  to  the  laws,  military  service, 
discipline,  devotion,  fidelity  to  the  flag,  etc.).  Taxation  (condemnation  of  all  fraud 
toward  the  State).  The  vote  (it  is  morally  obligatory ;  it  ought  to  be  free,  conscientious, 
disinterested,  intelligent).  Rights  which  correspond  to  these  duties:  Personal  liberty, 
liberty  of  conscience,  liberty  of  work,  liberty  of  association.  Guaranty  of  the  security 
of  the  life  and  of  the  property  of  all.  The  national  sovereignty.  Explanation  of  the 
republican  devise:  "Liberty,  equality,  fraternity."  In  each  chapter  of  this  course  in 
social  morals,  without  entering  into  metaphysical  discussions,  the  attention  of  the 
pupil  Is  to  be  called  to: 

1.  The  difference  between  duty  and  interest  even  when  they  seem  to  be  the  same, 
i  e.,  the  imperative  and  disinterested  character  of  duty; 

2.  The  distinction  between  the  written  and  the  moral  law:  The  one  fixes  a  minimum 
of  prescriptions  which  society  imposes  on  all  her  members  under  fixed  penalties;  the 
other  imposes  on  each  one  in  the  secret  of  his  conscience  a  duty  which  no  one  compels 
him  to  fulfil,  but  which  he  can  not  neglect  without  feeling  guilty  toward  himself, 
toward  society  and  toward  God. 

([/pperprimon/sc/iooZs.— Under  the  following  divisions:  Preliminary  notions.  Moral 
responsibility.   Liberty.   Daty.    Bight.   Virtue. 


121 

Domestic  dutieB.—  Duties  of  children  toward  pareots,  of  brothers  and  sisters  toward 
each  other,  mutual  duties  of  husbands  and  wives,  of  masters  and  servants,  duties  of 
parents  toward  children.    Family  spirit 

Civic  diUies.— The  country,  the  State  and  the  citizen. 

Public  authority,  the  constitution  and  the  laws. 

Duties  of  citizens:  Obedience  to  the  laws,  military  service,  taxation,  votlns. 

Duties  of  the  Kovernins:  The  great  public  powers. 

Patriotism. 

Duties  of  nations  toward  each  other.— 'Sotlons  of  International  rights. 

General  duties  of  social  li/e.— Respect  for  person,  life,  liberty,  honor,  reputation, 
opinions  and  beliefs,  property,  etc. ;  respect  for  contracts  and  promises;  distributive 
and  remunerative  justice;  equity. 

Charity,  benevolence,  alms-Klvins,  Koodness,  solidarity,  politeness. 

Duties  toward  animals. 

Personal  (Zu<j>a.— Self-respect,  veracity,  modesty,  foresight,  courage,  self-control. 

Development  of  all  our  faculties ;  work. 

lieligious  duties  and  corresponding  jtrivileges.  —  Place  of  religious  sentiment  In 
morale^ 

Liberty  of  worship. 

Sanctions  of  morale,  virtue  making  happy.    Ood  and  the  future  life. 


TWENTY-SECOND  CHAPTER. 
SCHOOLS  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  TRAINING. 

These  schools  are  classed  with  the  public  primary  schools,  and 
are  regulated  by  the  law  of  December  11,  1880,  and  by  the  decree  of 
March  17,  1888.     The  course  of  study  covers  at  least  three  years. 

Schools  for  industrial  and  commercial  training-  {tcoles  vianuelles 
d'apprentissage,  and  ecoles  primaires  superieures  preparatoires  au  com- 
merce ou  a  Vindustrie)  assure  pupils : 

1.  A  complement  of  primary  instruction. 

2.  Industrial  or  commercial  instruction,  or  both. 

The  time-tables  in  these  schools  are  divided  as  follows : 


Industrial  Schools  and  Classes. 


FiBST  Year. 

Sboohd  Tkab. 

THIBD  Y«4R. 

OENER&.L  PLAN  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

Hours  dally. 

Hours  daily. 

Hours  daily. 

Primary  Instruction 

2  hours 

3  houn> 

Ihour 

1  hour 

a  hours 

4  hours 

Ihour 

ibour 

3  hours. 

s  hours. 

Scientiflo   and   technical   instruction   with 
Industrial  applications.  

1  hour. 

Total  hours  of  work 

7  hours 

8  hours 

•  hours. 

16 

122 


Commercial  Schools  and  Classes. 


GENERAL  PLAN  OP  INSTRUCTION. 


Primary  InBtnictlon 

Commercial  bureau 

Commercial  eeoeraphy 

Modem  laneuages 

Drawing 

Total  hours  of  work 


FiBST  YEAB. 


Hours  daily. 


1  hour.. 

2  hours 

1  hour. . 

2  hours 
1  hour. . 
7  hours 


Second  YEAB. 


Hours  dally. 


1  hour.. 
3  hours 
1  hour.. 
1  hour. . 
1  hour.. 
7  hours 


Thibd  ybab. 


Hours  dally. 


1  hour. 
3  hours. 

1  hour. 

2  hours. 
1  hour. 


8  hours. 


Pupils  under  12  are  not  admitted  to  these  schools.  They  must 
hold  the  certificate  of  primary  studies  or  its  equivalent. 

In  schools  for  girls  the  working-  hours  are  reduced  to  six,  for  the 
first  year ;  seven,  for  the  second  year ;  eight,  for  the  third  year. 

In  case  a  fourth  year  is  added  to  the  course,  the  time-table  is 
determined  by  a  special  program. 

Observation. 

A  commission  appointed  to  make  inquiry  and  report  to  the  Legis- 
lature of  Pennsylvania  respecting  industrial  education  made  quite 
an  elaborate  report  in  1889  on  the  condition  of  industrial  education 
in  France  and  in  other  countries.  It  was  my  good  fortune  to  meet 
in  Paris  George  W.  Atherton,  chairman  of  this  commission,  and  to 
visit  with  him  some  of  the  leading  French  industrial  schools.  The 
report  of  the  commission  covers  592  pages  and  is  very  valuable  to 
persons  interested  in  this  subject. 

One  of  our  most  profitable  visits  was  at  the  EcoU  Diderot  in  Paris 
which  had  at  that  time  about  300  pupils. 

The  object  of  this  school  is  to  prepare  workmen  for  eight  of  the 
principal  trades.  The  apprenticeship  lasts  three  years.  During 
the  first  year  pupils  pass  from  one  workshop  to  another  in  order  to 
test  their  aptitude.  At  the  close  of  this  year  they  choose  a  trade 
wi^h  the  concurrence  of  their  parents,  and  devote  the  second  and 
third  years  to  this  special  apprenticeship.  Pupils  are  paid  for  sat- 
isfactory work  at  a  fixed  scale.  Two-thirds  of  their  wages  are  allowed 
the  pupils  monthly,  and  one-third  is  kept  by  the  director  until  their 
graduation. 

French  schools  in  cities  and  centers  of  population  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  apparatus,  and  the  teachers  are  remarkably  ingenious 
in  its  use.    The  noticeable  feature  of  the  apparatus  used  in  indus- 


123 

trial  schools  is  that  much  of  it  is  made  by  tho  pupils.  At  the  Ecole 
Diderot,  for  example,  the  pupils  lunch  at  the  school,  and  the  ques. 
tiou  of  prep£iring  and  cooking  potatoes  has  received  attention. 
The  director,  who  is  remarkably  ingenious,  has  invented  two  large 
machines,  one  for  peeling  and  one  for  cooking  potatoes.  Both  were 
made  by  the  pupils,  and  both  work  to  a  charm. 


TWENTY-THIRD  CHAPTER 
PRIMARY  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

Primary  normal  schools  are  establishments  for  training  teachers 
for  the  public  ecoles  matemelles,  the  lower  and  upper  primary  schools.* 
Normal  schools  are  under  the  rector  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
minister.  They  are  boarding  schools.  Board  and  lodgings  are  free. 
Day  students  may  be  admitted  on  the  recommendation  of  the  rector 
and  with  the  approval  of  the  minister.  Thexjourse  of  study  is  three 
years  in  length.  A  primary  practice-school  is  annexed  to  each 
normal  school.  In  addition,  an  ecole  maternelle  is  attached  to  each 
normal  school  for  females. 

Normal  school  directors  are  appointed  by  the  minister.  They 
should  be  30  years  of  age  and  should  hold  the  certificate  of  capacity 
for  the  inspection  of  primary  schools  and  for  the  direction  of  normal 
schools. 

A  steward  with  the  title  ^onome  is  attached  to  each  normal  school. 
In  normal  schools  for  males,  the  econome  is  charged  with  the  instruc- 
tion in  bookkeeping;  in  normal  schools  for  females,  with  the 
instruction  in  domestic  economy  as  well.  These  economes  may  also 
give  other  instruction  according  to  their  qualifications. 

Candidates  for  the  position  of  steward  should  hold  the  brevet  auper- 
leur  and  the  cerlifical  d'aptitude  pedagogique.  They  should  be  at  least 
21  years  of  age,  and  should  have  served  an  apprenticeship  of  one 
year  imder  the  steward  of  a  normal  school. 

Instruction  in  normal  schools  is  given  by  professors,  assistants 
and  special  teachers  appointed  by  the  minister.  The  direction  of 
practice  primary  schools  and  ecoles  materuelles  is  confided  to  a 
member  of  the  normal  school  facujxy. 

*  There  are  also  two  advanced  normal  schools  {Fontenav-aux-Ro»e»  and  Saint  Cloud). 
These  schools  (the  former  for  men,  the  latter  for  women)  train  normal  school  profesitor? 
and  professors  of  upper  primary  schools.  Tbejr  are  (rratultoas  and  the  course  of  studr 
covers  three  years.  The  normal  school  iPape-OtrparUien  at  Versailles  trains  directree 
for  the  tlcoles  nmtemeUe*. 


124 

Workmen  may  be  employed  in  normal  schools  for  males  to  assist 
the  professor  of  manual  training-. 

In  every  normal  school,  receiving  more  than  60  pupils,  the  num- 
ber of  professora  is  fixed  at  five,  not  including  the  steward  and  direc- 
tor of  the  practice  school  (two  for  letters,  three  for  the  sciences  and 
manual  training).  The  number  is  fixed  at  four  if  the  school  has  60 
pupils  or  less  (two  for  letters,  two  for  the  sciences  and  manual 
training). 

The  summer  vacation  in  normal  schools  is  seven  weeks  in  length. 
Holidays  and  other  vacations  correspond  with  those  in  primary 
sc  ools.  About  five  hours  daily  are  devoted  to  meals,  recreations 
and  physical  exercises,  and  eight  hours  to  sleep. 

Students. 

The  number  of  students  each  normal  school  may  receive  is  fixed 
annually  by  the  rector  with  the  advice  of  the  department  council. 
Candidates  are : 

1.  To  be  between  16  and  18  years  of  age ; 

2.  To  hold  the  brevet  elementaire  ; 

3.  To  place  themselves  under  bond  to  serve  10  years  in  public 
instruction; 

4.  To  be  in  a  satisfactory  physical  condition. 

The  rector  has  authority  to  admit  candidates  more  than  18  years 
of  age. 

The  examination  for  admission  is  held  before  a  commission 
appointed  by  the  rector.  The  academy  inspector  is  president  of 
this  commission.    More  than  two  trials  are  not  authorized. 

Candidates  must  submit  birth  certificate  and  biographic  sketch. 
They  are  examined  as  to  physical  condition  by  the  normal  school 
physician. 

Examinations  for  admission  are  both  oral  and  written,  including, — 

1.  An  exercise  in  dictation  of  about  twenty  lines.  The  punctuation 
is  not  dictated,  but  candidates  are  allowed  ten  minutes  in  which  to 
revise  their  work. 

2.  An  exercise  in  penmanship  {bdtarde,  ronde,  cursive,  coarse, 
medium,  fine).    Three-quarters  of  an  hour  are  given  to  this  work. 

3.  A  simple  exercise  in  French  composition  (two  hours). 

4.  The  solution  of  one  or  more  problems  in  arithmetic  with  expla- 
nation of  processes  (two  hours). 

5.  An  easy  exercise  in  drawing  (one  and  one-half  hours). 

6.  Questions  on  the  French  language,  arithmetic  and  the  metric 
system,  the  history  and  geography  of  France,  notions  of  g-eneral 


125 

g-oography,  elementary  notions  of  the  physical  and  natural  sciences 
(at  least  half  au  hour  is  devoted  to  each  subject). 

7.  Abstracts  of  two  lessons  given  by  the  professors  on  two  sub- 
jects (one  literary,  the  other  scientific).  These  abstracts  cure  to  be 
prepared  in  half  an  hour  each. 

8.  An  exercise  in  music  from  the  advanced  course  in  primary 
schools. 

9.  Gymnastic  exercises  taken  from  the  advanced  course  in  primary 
schools;  also,  for  the  males,  military  exercises;  for  the  females, 
needlework. 

The  examinations  are  divided  into  two  parts.  Only  those  candi- 
dates who  succeed  in  passing  the  first  part  satisfactorily  are 
admitted  to  the  second.  During  the  second  series  of  tests, 
which  are  not  to  occupy  more  than  one  week,  candidates  are 
lodged  and  fed  at  the  normal  schools  at  the  expense  of  their 
families. 

Students  leaving  the  normal  schools  voluntarily  or  excluded 
therefrom  or  breaking  the  engagement  to  serve  10  years  in  public 
instruction,  must  restore  the  cost  of  board,  washing  and  books. 
Dispensations  may  be  granted,  however,  by  the  minister  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  rector  and  with  the  advice  of  professors  and 
academy  inspector. 

Every  normal  graduate  receives,  when  first  called  to  a  post  of 
duty,  an  indemnity  of  twenty  dollars. 

Normal  graduates  are  entitled  to  the  first  vacancies  in  public 
schools  in  accordance  with  their  certificates  of  capacity. 

Normal  students  have  every  opportunity  for  their  religious 
duties. 

The  only  pimishments  which  are  authorized  are : 

1.  Detention  within  the  school  buildings. 

2.  Warning,  pronounced  by  the  director. 

3.  Public  reprimand,  pronounced  according  to  the  gravity  of  the 
ofiense  by  the  director  or  by  the  academy  inspector. 

4.  Suspension  for  a  period  not  exceeding  15  days  pronounced 
by  the  rector  on  the  report  of  the  academy  inspector,  and  with  the 
advice  of  the  administrative  council.* 

5.  Expulsion,  pronounced  by  the  minister  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  rector. 

*  Aa  admiaistrative  couacil,  appelated  for  three  years,  and  oomposed  of  the  academy 
inspector  as  president,  six  members  named  by  the  rector,  and  two  counsfiUert  gJmSraux, 
watches  over  the  material  interests  of  each  normal  school. 


126 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  PRIMARY  NORMA.L  SCHOOLS. 
The  following-  are  abbreviated  translations  of  the  official  time-tables 
and  courses  of  study  in  primary  normal  schools  for  males  and 
females,  as  published  January  10,  1889 : 

Normal  Schools  fob  Males. 


HouES  PKB  Week. 

SUBJECTS. 

First 
year. 

Second 
year. 

Third 
year. 

Literary  instruction: 
PyscholoKy.  morals,  pedasrosry 

2 

6 
3 

1 

2 
2 

2 
4 
3 
1 
1 
2 

2 

French  lauKuaeeand  literature 

4 

History  and  civics 

3 

GeoKniphy , 

1 

Penmanship 

Modern  lan(;uaKes 

♦2 

Total 

15 

13 

12 

Scientific  instruction: 
Mathematics 

3 
2 

1 
4 

4 

2 

1 
4 
1 

4 

Physics  and  chemistry 

3 

Natural  sciences  and  hygiene 

tl 

Drawing  and  modelinjf 

4 

Theoretic  agriculture 

1 

Total 

10 

12 

13 

Manual  and  agricultural  training 

6 
3 
2 

6 
3 

2 

5 

Military  and  gymnastic  exercises 

3 

Music 

2 

*In  addition  to  the  two  hours,  one  hour  weekly  is  devoted  to  conversational  exercises 
in  the  language  studied. 

*  Hygiene  and  geology  in  the  third  year  occupy  together  one  hour  weekly.  Hygiene  — 
twenty  lessons. 

NoBMAL  Schools  for  Females. 


SUBJECTS. 


Literary  instruf'tion : 

P.-*vehology,  morals,  pedagogy 

Froiich  language  and  literature 

History  and  civics , 

Geography 

Prtnraaushlp 

Modern  languages , 

Total 

Scientific  instruction: 

Mathematics 

PhysicH .  .. 

Chemistry   

Natural  sciences  and  hygiene 

Domestic  economy 

Drawing 

Total 

Needlework 

Household  duties  and  work  in  gai  den 

Gymnastics 

Music 


HouBS  Pbk  Week. 


First 

Second 

Third 

year. 

year. 

year. 

2 

2 

2 

6 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

15 

2 

•2 

13 

12 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

4 

7 

9 

10 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

a 

•  In  addition  to  the  two  hours,  one  hour  weekly  Is  devoted  to  conversational  exercises 
in  the  language  studied. 


127 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS  FOR  MALES. 

FIRST  YEAR. 
L  Elementaby  Notions  of  Psychology. 

Object  of  psychoIoKF.— Its  relatioQS  to  pedacosy  and  morals.  General  deBcriptioa  of 
the  human  faculties. 

Phyaical  activUu.  -Movements,  instincts,  habits. 

.!^ist7>i7i<i/.  — Pleasure  and  pain.  Physical  sensibility:  Needs  and  appetites.  Moral 
sensibility:  Family  spirit;  social  and  patilotio  feelings;  sentiment  of  the  tme.  the 
beautiful,  the  Rood ;  religious  feeliuK.    Passion. 

/n<^{/>0fnc«.— Conscience :  the  senses ;  natural  and  acquired  perceptions.  Memory  and 
ImaKinatlon.  Attention,  abstraction  and  Reneralization  ;  judgment  and  reasoning. 
The  principles  of  reason. 

MiL-Llberty;  habit. 

ConcZtmans  o/j)»i/r7ioto(7i/.— Duality  of  human  nature.  Spirit  and  body:  moral,  intel- 
lectual and  animal  life. 

n.  Application  of  Psychology  to  Education. 

Physical  education.— General  health ;  children's  games  and  exercises. 

Intellectual  e(^uca<io7t.— Development  of  the  intellectual  faculties  at  different  ages; 
application  to  various  forms  of  information.  Education  of  the  senses;  simple  obser- 
vation exercises.  Training  of  memory  and  imagination;  judgment  and  reasoning. 
Different  processes ;  induction;  deduction. 

Methods  of  instruction.— Particular  study  of  processes  applicable  to  each  subject. 

Moral  fdwcaZioM.— Natural  diversity  in  Instincts  and  characters,  modification  of  char- 
acters and  formation  of  habits.  Culture  of  sensibility  of  child.  Education  of  the  will. 
Discipline,  rewards  and  punishments,  emulation. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Theoretic  Morals.    Principles. 

Jnfrodwfiow.— Object  of  morale. 

Oorucipnce.— Instinctive  discernment  of  good  and  evil,  development  through  education. 

Liberty  and  r6»pons)&i2t<i/.— Conditions,  degrees  and  limitations  of  responsibility. 

Obligation  and  duty.— tt&tare  of  moral  law.  Insufficiency  of  personal  Interest  as  basis 
of  moral  law.    Insufficiency  of  sentiment. 

Le  bien  and  le  d<?roiV  pur.— Dignity  of  man. 

iSanc<ion8o/)/)oraZe.— Relations  between  virtue  and  happiness.  Individual  sanctions. 
Social  sanctions.    Supreme  sanctions:  God  and  the  future  life. 

Practical  Morals.    Applications. 

Personal  duties.— Their  foundation.  Self-respect,  temperance,  prudence,  courage, 
respect  for  truth,  promises,  etc. 

Family  diUies.— The  family:  its  moral  and  social  Importance.    Domestic  duties. 

General  social  (iu{i(>8.— Personal  relations.  Divieion  of  social  duties.  Duties  of  justice 
and  charity. 

Ihities  of  justice.— UeBvect  for  life,  liberty,  honor,  reputation,  property,  opinions  and 
beliefs  of  others     Sacred  character  of  promises  and  contracts. 

Cii'il  duties.— The  State,  foundation  of  public  authority.  National  sovereignty,  its 
limitations  (liberty  of  conscience:  personal  liberty ;  property).  Universal  suffrage. 
Legislative,  executive  and  judicial  powers. 

Duties  of  citizens:  Patriotism,  obediense  to  the  laws,  taxation,  military  service,  votinx, 
education. 


128 

THIRD  YEAR. 
A.  The  first  three  months  are  devoted  to  a  review. 

B.  Practical  Pedagogy  and  School  Management. 

1.  Pedagogic  organization,— Cl&SBi&catiou  of  pupils;  programs:  time-tables;  prepara- 
tion of  lessons.    School  cahieis.    Compositions. 

2.  Z>tscip?ine.— Class  order.    Rewards  and  punishments. 

3.  Authorities  placed  over  the  supervision  and  direction  of  public  schools;  relations 
of  the  teachei  with  each.    Department  regulation  of  public  schools. 

Laws,  decrees  and  circulars,  with  special  study  of  the  organic  law  of  October  30, 1886. 
and  of  the  decree  and  instructions  of  January  18, 1887. 
i.  Leading  pedagocrues  and  their  doctrines.    Analysis  of  the  most  important  worlis. 

C.  Notions  of  Political  Economy. 

Production  of  wealth.  Agents  of  production:  material,  work,  economy,  capital, 
property. 

Circulation  and  distribution  of  wealth.    Exchange,  money,  credit,  wages  and  interest. 

Consumption  of  wealth.  Productive  and  unproductive  consumption,  the  question  of 
luxury;  expenses  of  the  State;  taxation,  the  budget. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 
1.  Eeading  and  Recitation. 

Classic  selections  read  aloud.  Choice  selections  committed  to  memory.  Supple- 
mentary reading  assigned  by  master  or  chosen  by  student  under  his  direction ;  written 
or  oral  analysis  of  selections. 

2.  Grammar  and  Grammatic  Exercises, 

First  year.— Rational  study  of  French  grammar. 
Second  year.— Thorough  review  with  essential  historic  notions. 
For  each  course,  oral  and  written  exercises  in  orthography,  grammatic  and  logical 
analysis. 

3.  Composition. 

First  i/eor.— One  hour.    Second  and  third  years.—  Two  hours. 

4.  History  of  Literature. 

One  hour  in  third  year. 

Firitt  trimeslre.—  Origin.    Renaissance.—  First  half  of  the  17th  century. 

Second  trimestre.—B6cond  half  of  the  I7th  century  and  the  I8th  to  the  Revolution. 

Third  trimeslre.—  The  l»th  century.    Review. 

HISTORY  AND  CIVICS. 
FIRST  YEAR. 
History. 

First  trimeslre.—  Ancient  history;  Greece  and  the  Orient. 

Second  trimestre.—'Rova&Ti  history. 

Third  trimestre.—  Middle  ages  to  100  years'  war. 

N.  Z?.— Historic  notions  of  the  Orient,  Greece  and  Rome  should  relate  particularly 
customs,  beliefs,  monuments,  and  the  part  taken  in  the  development  of  civilization. 
Legends,  anecdotes,  biographies,  descriptions  and  literary  history  are  very  important. 
Time  should  be  reserved  at  each  lesson  for  selections  from  great  ancient  writers, 
modern  historians  or  travelers. 


129 

SECOND  YEAR. 

First  trimeatre.—  From  the  100  years'  war  to  the  Reformation. 
Second  Ifimestre.—  From  the  Reformation  to  the  lievolutlon  of  1888. 
Third  trims atrp.— From  the  Revolution  of  1688  to  the  French  Revolution. 
N.  B.—  The  most  Important  events,  Inventions  and  discoveries. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

First  trimeatre.  — The  Revolution  and  the  Consulate. 

Second  trimeatre.—  The  Empire  and  the  Restauration. 

Third  trimeatre.— From  1830  to  1876.    Review. 

JV.  £.— Instruction  as  In  second  year,  except  that  one  houraweekforonefrtm«s(re 
Is  devoted  to  civics.  The  instruction  in  civics  Is  most  thoro  URh  as  rexards  national 
institutions,  inoludluK  the  system  of  primary  education. 

GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY. 
FIRST  YEAR. 

Elementary  notions  of  oosmoeraphy.  General  study  of  the  earth.  Explanation  of 
Reofrraphio  terms.    The  slobe  and  maps. 

Oeneral  study  of  the  continents  and  oceans.  Great  orographic  and  hydrosraphic 
systems.  Atmospheric  and  marine  currents.  Human  races.  £<iuatorlal,  tropical  and 
polar  reKlons. 

Political  KeoKraphy.  Particular  study  of  the  principal  countries  of  Asia,  Africa. 
America  and  Oceanica. 

Principal  Keosraphic  explorations. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Geography  of  Europe. 

General  study  of  Europe.— Physlral  description.  Particular  study  of  each  country 
(France  not  included):  Physical,  administrative,  agricultural.  Industrial  and  commer- 
cial seoRraphy.    Governments ;  ruliRlons. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Geography  of  France. 

Physical  Reosraphy.  Boundaries.  OroRraphy  and  hydroRraphy.  Historic  and 
administrative  ReoRraphy:  Ancient  and  modern  divisions.  Government  (central, 
departmental  and  communal).    ARrlcultural,  industrial  and  commercial  ReoRraphy. 

GeoRrapby  uf  AlRerla  and  of  the  French  colonien.  Physical  and  administrative  Reo- 
Rraphy.   ARrlcultural  and  Industrial  products.    Importation  and  exportation. 

ARITHMETIC. 
FIRST  YEAR. 

Operations  with  whole  numbers.  Divisibility  by  3.  6.  4,  36. 3,  9,  ll.  Greatest  common 
divisor:  least  common  multiple.  Common  and  decimal  fractions.  Metric  fy^tem. 
Ratio  and  proporilon.  Simple  inter^t.  Discount  ExchauRe.  Partnership.  AlllRa- 
tlon.    Short  methods  In  oral  and  written  work. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

A.  Completion  of  arithmetic. 

B.  AJRebra  throuRh  equations  of  the  first  deRree. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

A.  AlRebra.— Solution  of  equations  of  the  second  deRree  with  one  unknown  quantity. 
Applications  to  arithmetic  and  Reometry.  Arithmetic  and  Reometrio  proRressions. 
LoRarlthms.    Compound  interest  and  annuities. 

B.  BookkeeplQR.— SiuRle  and  double  entry.  Dispositions  of  the  commercial  code 
relative  to  commercial  responsibility, 

17 


130 

GEOMETRY. 
FIEST  YEAR. 
Two  books  of  LeKendre.— Proportional  lines.    Similitude. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

Lencth  of  the  circumference.    Measure  of  areas.  • 

Parallel  lines  and  planes.    Trihedral  anfirles. 

Measure  of  volumes. 

Cylinder,  cone,  sphere.  „„^^^  ,,„  .  ^ 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Summary  notions  of  trigonometry. 

Oonstruction  of  (reometrio  plans.    Scale.    Conventional  siitns.    Surveyor's  compass, 
mariner's  compass. 
Practical  work  and  problems  in  surveyinor.    Leveling. 
Dimensioned  plans.    Topoorraphlo  plans  and  maps. 
Topographic  promenades. 

PHYSICS. 
FIRST  YEAR. 

Weight  and  hvfirostatics.— Direction  ot-vie\Kht  Center  of  gravity.  Weights.  Balances. 
Specific  gravity.  Liquids  in  equilibrium.  Liquid  pressure.  Communicating  vessels. 
Hydraulic  press.  Principle  of  Archimedes.  Areometers.  Gases.  Atmospheric 
pressure.  Barometers.  Mariotte's  law.  Manometers.  Pneumatic  machines.  Pumps; 
siphon.    Balloons. 

Acoustics.—  Propagation  of  sound.  Measure  of  the  velocity  of  sound  in  the  air,  in 
liquids  and  in  solids.    Reflexion  of  sound.    Qualities  of  sound. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

7/ea<.— DllatioD.  Thermometers.  Coefficients  of  dilation.  Common  applications. 
Conductivity.  Applications.  Motion  in  liquids  and  gases.  Marine  currents.  Winds. 
Chimneys.  Ventilation.  Changes  in  the  state  of  bodies.  Fusion,  solidification,  disso- 
lution, crystallization.  Vaporization  in  air  and  in  a  vacuum.  Vapors.  Tension. 
Hygrometry.  Clouds  and  fogs,  rain,  snow,  frost.  Evaporation.  Ebullition.  Distilla- 
tiou.  Experimental  notions  of  calorimetry.  Freezing  mixtures.  Cold  produced  by 
evaporation.  Manufacture  of  ice.  Principal  methods  of  heating  In  domebtic  economy 
and  in  industry.  Idea  of  steam  engines.  Installation  and  observation  of  thermometers. 
Maxima  and  minima  temperatures.  Atmospheric  pressure.  Diurnal  and  annual  varia- 
tions.   Winds.    Weather  indications.    Cyclones.    Blizzards. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

ElectricUy  and  maanetism.—  Production  of  electricity.  Electric  machines.  Leyden  jars. 
Atmospheric  electricity.  Batteries.  Electric  current.  Electric  light.  Magnets.  Com- 
passes. Oalvanometer.  Magnetic  induction.  Electro-magnet.  General  idea  of  the 
electric  telegraph.    Induction.    Telephone. 

Optics.—  Propagation  of  light  Umbra  and  penumbra.  Properties  of  plane  and  spheric 
mirrors  established  experimentally.  Refraction.  Prisms.  Reflection ;  miraoe.  Prop- 
erties of  lenses,  established  experimentally.  Magnifying  glass.  Microscope.  Tele- 
scope.   Decomposition  and  recomposltion  of  light.    Spectra.    Rain-bow.    Radiant  heat. 

Physical  mechanics.— tloWon.  Inertia.  Forces.  Laws  of  the  fall  of  bodies.  Atwood's 
machine.  Mass.  Measure  of  force.  Simple  machines.  Lever.  Pulley.  Motive  power. 
Resistance.   Notions  of  the  equivalence  of  mechanic  work  and  heat 


131 


CHEMISTRY. 
FIRST.YEAR. 

Analysis  and  synthesis  of  water.  Hydrosen.  Oxysen.  Analysis  of  air.  Mitrocren. 
General  notions  of  chemical  combustion.  DlsensaKed  heat.  Chanse  of  propertiea. 
Principles  of  nomenclature  and  of  chemical  notation.  Acids.  Bases.  Oxides  of  nltro- 
Ken.  Nitric  acid.  Ammonia.  Laws  of  chemical  combinations.  Chlorine.  Hydro- 
chloric acid.  Iodine.  Sulphur.  Sulphuric  acid.  Sulphurous  acid.  Hydrosulphuric 
acid.  Phosphorus.  Phosphoric  acid.  Phosphoretted  hydroKen.  Carbon.  Carbonic 
oxides.    Carbonic  aoid.    Silicic  acid. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

Metals.  Alloys.  Salts.  Notions  of  eauivalenta.  Potassium  and  sodium.  Potash. 
Soda.  Sea  salt  Artificial  salt.  Calcium  and  magnesium.  Lime:  carbonate,  sulphate, 
phosphate.  Aluminum.  Alumina.  Alum.  Silicates,  clays,  pottery  and  slass,  lime, 
mortars,  cements.  Iron,  zinc.  Oxides,  sulphates,  carbonates.  Notions  of  metallurKy. 
Tin,  copper,  lead.    Oxides,  sulphates  and  carbonates.    Mercury,  silver,  sold,  platinum 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Summary  notions  of  elementary  analysis  and  synthesis  of  oncanlc  substaneep.  The 
classification  of  these  substances: 

Hydro-carbon.  Alcohol.  Ether.  Glycerine.  Glucose.  Dextrine.  Phenol.  Acids. 
Alkalies.    Albumen.    Gelatine.    Preservation  of  woods,  hides  and  foods. 

THE  NATURAL  SCIENCES  AND  HYGIENE. 
FIRST  YEAR. 

a.  The  description  of  the  structure  of  the  oreans  of  plants. 

b.  Functions  of  nutrition,  fecundation  and  (cermination. 

c.  Division  of  plants  Into  dicotyledonous,  monocotyledonous,  and  acotyledonoa& 
Special  study  of  useful  and  poisonous  i^ilants. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Zoology. 

a.  Anatomy  and  physiolofiry  of  man. 

b.  Classification  of  animals. 

THIRD  YEAR. 
Geology. 

Oeneral  study  of  the  principal  (ceolofflc  phenomena  of  the  present  epoch. 

Utilization  thereof  in  the  explanation  of  seoloRic  phenomena  of  former  periods. 

Rocks.    Geologic  forces.    Historic  Keolosy. 

jV.  7}.— ThouKh  the  instruction  in  botany  Is  placed  in  the  first  year  of  the  course, 
nevertheless  the  students  of  the  second  and  third  years  as  well  as  those  of  the  first  are 
to  make  frequent  botanic  excursions  under  the  direction  of  the  professor. 

Hygient:. 

Water.  Air.  Foods.  ContaKlous  diseases.  Excrements.  Sanitary  conditions  of  the 
household.  Diseases  contracted  at  school.  Vaccination  and  revaccination.  Hysiene 
in  infancy.    Diseases  of  animals. 


1H2 

MODERN  LANGUAGES. 
FIRST  YEAR. 

Professors  are  not  to  lose  sifirht  of  the  fact  that  Instruction  In  modern  languafires  Is  for 
conversational  purposes. 
Simultaneous  exercises  in  reading,  writine  and  orthoeraphy. 
Lists  of  words,  exercises  In  conversation  on  these  words. 
Memory  exercises,  short  and  easy  poems. 
Pronunciation  Is  to  receive  careful  attention. 
Instruction  in  crammar  Is  to  be  practical  in  character. 
Simple  exercises  in  reading.    Explanation  of  selections  read. 
Grammatlc  themes. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

Continuation  of  the  same  method  and  exercises. 
Lists  of  words  and  conversation  on  these  words. 
Memory  exercises.    Short  and  easy  selections  in  prose  and  poetry. 
Beadlne  of  choice  selections.    Conversation  on  selections  read. 
Continuation  of  grammar.    Give  a  practical  character  to  this  instruction. 
Short  compositions  on  simple  subjects.    Letters. 

Read  in  German  Hebel's  Schatzk&stlein,  Grimm's  popular  stories:  in  EcKlisb,  one  of 
the  readers  and  Miss  Edeeworth's  stories. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Continuation  of  the  same  method  and  exercises. 

Oral  and  written  exercises  on  lists  of  words. 

Memory  exercises :  Selections  chosen  from  the  principal  authors. 

Exercises  in  reading. 

Exercises  in  calculation  in  the  foreifirn  tongue. 

Conversations  on  eeograpby,  travels  and  subjects  connected  with  every-day  life. 

Review  of  the  grammar. 

Composition:  Letters,  descriptions,  simple  narratives. 

Reading :  Schiller's  Geschtchte  des  Abfalls  der  verelnigten  Niederlande  and  Geschlchte 
des  dreissigjilhrigen  Erlegs;  Franklin's  Autobiography;  Miss  Corner's  History  of 
England. 

Songs  in  the  foreign  tongue  throughout  the  course. 

Extracts  from  foreign  pedagogic  journals. 

AGRICULTUEE. 
SECOND  YEAR. 

o.  Vegetable  growth.— Study  of  the  soil  and  means  of  modifying  its  chemical  composi- 
tion and  physical  properties:  grains,  leguminous  plants,  fodder,  industrial  plants. 
h.  Alimentation.— Domestic  animals, 
c.  Rural  economy  and  notions  of  agricultural  accounts. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Horticulture. 

a.  General  notions. 

b.  Culture  of  trees.— Grafting. 

c.  The  kitchen-garden. 

The  professor  should  dwell  'particularly  on  the  horticultural  conditions  of  the 
locality. 


133 


DRAWING. 

FIIWT  YEAR. 

Imitative  Drawing. 

The  course  of  study  closely  resembles  that  of  upper  primary  schools. 

Geometric  DRA^^^NO. 

The  course  of  study  is  similar  to  that  ia  upper  primary  sohools. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Review  with  developmeDt  as  In  upper  primary  schools. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Review  of  the  work  of  the  second  year  with  development  as  in  the  upper  primary 
schools. 

N.  B.— The  development  of  the  course  of  the  upper  primary  schools  is  in  the  line  of 
flttlnor  the  normal  school  students  to  teach  the  several  divisions  of  the  subject 

VOCAL  AND  INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC. 
FIRST  YEAR. 

Elementary  principles  of  music.     Pronunciation  and  diction.     Use  of  the  voice. 
Respiration.    Classification  of  voices.    Exercises  in  major  and  minor  scales. 
Easy  exercises  in  dictation.    Execution  of  simple  selections. 
Elementary  exercises  on  the  oraran  or  piano. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Bevlew  with  development 

Oral  and  written  exercises  in  major  and  minor  scales  in  the  keys  of  sol  and  fa. 
Execution  of  selections  in  several  parts. 
Oontinuation  of  the  exercises  on  the  orcran  or  piano. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Execution  of  choral  music. 

Elementary  study  of  accompaniments  and  of  harmony  in  connection  with  school 
sonss. 
Continuation  of  the  exercises  on  organ  or  piano. 
Notions  of  the  history  of  music  and  of  the  principal  master-pieces  in  music. 

GYMNASTICS  AND  MILITARY  EXERCISES. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Gymnastics. 

Games.    Promenades.    Evolutions.    Lessons  in  French  boxlDK.  stick  and  cane  exer- 
cises.   FenciDK. 
Exercises  with  gymnastic  apparatus.    Swimmintr. 

Militaby  Exercises. 

Formation  of  the  section.    Alienments.    Marches.   Countermarches. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Gymnastics. 

Review  with  development    Rowing. 


134 

Military  Exercises. 

Formation  in  open  order.    Deploying:.    BallyinK.    Mustering. 

Target  practice.  „„, , 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Gymnastics. 

Review  and  completion  of  the  preceding  exercises  and  methodic  preparation  for 
Instruction  in  gymnastics  in  lower  primary  schools. 

Military  Exercises. 

School  of  the  soldier  with  arms.    Target  practice.    Study  of  the  gun,  model  1874. 


NOEMAL  SCHOOLS  FOE  FEMALES. 
1.  Psychology.    Pedagogy.    Morals. 

The  program  is  the  same  as  in  the  normal  schools  for  males,  except  that  the  pro- 
fessor is  to  dwell  particularly  on  the  duties  of  the  wife,  the  mother  and  the  housekeeper. 

2.  French  Language. 

The  same  program  as  In  normal  schools  for  males. 

3.  History. 

The  same  program  as  in  normal  schools  for  males. 

HISTOET  AND  CIVICS. 
THIRD  YEAR. 
The  same  program  as  in  normal  schools  for  males  with  less  development 

Geography. 

The  same  program  as  in  normal  schools  for  males. 

Mathematics. 

The  course  includes  arithmetic,  plane  geometry,  and  bookkeeping,  with  less  develop- 
ment than  in  normal  schools  for  males. 

Physics  and  Chemistry. 

The  course  is  simpler  than  that  In  normal  schools  for  males. 
Instruction  is  essentially  experimental  and  practical. 

Natural  Sciences. 

In  botany,  zoology  and  hygiene  the  courses  are  the  same  as  those  in  normal  schools 
for  males. 
The  course  in  geology  is  simplified. 

Domestic  Economy. 
THIRD  YEAR. 

The  household.— Care  of  dwelling  and  furniture.  Care  of  clothing  and  linen. 
Washing  and  ironing.  Alimentation.  Nutritive  qualtities  of  different  foods.  House- 
hold accounts. 

N.  B.— The  students  are  to  be  exercised  as  much  as  possible  in  the  preparation  of  food 
and  In  other  household  duties. 


135 
Modern  Languages. 

The  same  proKram  as  that  in  normal  schools  for  males. 

Needlework. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

The  makins  and  care  of  flrarments. 

The  maklDK  of  various  articles  of  olotbins  for  men,  women  and  children  by  band,  or 
with  the  sewins  machine. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Manner  of  takinK  measurements. 
The  study  of  patterns. 
The  drawing  of  patterns  and  the  cuttinx  of  articles  of  clotblnR  therefrom. 

THIRD  YEAR. 
Review  and  completion  of  the  first  and  second  years. 

Drawing. 

The  course  is  very  similar  to  that  in  normal  schools  for  males  except  that  the  appli- 
cations to  a  certain  extent  are  those  adapted  to  work  which  is  Renerally  done  by  women. 

Singing  and  Instrumental  Music. 

The  same  program  as  that  in  the  normal  schools  for  males. 

Gymnastics. 

The  course  of  study  is  similar  to  that  of  normal  schools  for  males  with  the  omission 
of  certain  exercises. 

CONCLUSION. 

Several  authorities  have  asserted  that  the  French  admit  the 
superiority  of  Prussian  schools,  because  French  parents  have  sent 
their  children  in  many  cases  to  Prussian  secondary  schools.  This 
argument  had  force  as  far  as  secondary  schools  were  concerned,  but 
it  should  have  been  restricted  to  these  schools. 

If  France  continues  to  make  as  much  prog-ress  in  her  secondary 
schools  as  she  has  made  during  the  past  few  years,  the  comparison 
with  those  of  her  rival  will  be  as  favorable  as  in  the  case  of  elemen- 
tary schools.  At  present  she  is  endeavoring  to  avoid  the  objections 
which  have  been  urged  by  Germans  against  their  own  system  of 
secondary  instruction,  and  seems  to  be  working  along  better  and 
more  practical  lines,  though  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  this 
work  in  France  is  yet  in  its  infancy. 

Schools,  like  prophets,  are  often  not  without  honor  save  in  their 
own  country.  AVe  have  many  examples  of  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment. Parents  in  New  York  often  send  their  children  away  to  be 
educated,  when  they  would  receive  better  instruction  in  the  public 
schools  at  home.  In  the  same  way  German  parents  send  their 
children  to  France  and  French  children  are  sent  to  Germany, 


136 

though  in  these  cases  the  acquisition  of  a  modern  language  is  often 
the  principal  reason.  • 

We  must  also  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  reputation  of  Prussian 
schools  has  been  established  for  more  than  half  a  century,  while  the 
French  system  of  public  instruction  dates  almost  entirely  from  the 
Franco-Prussian  war,  and  in  a  large  measure  from  1882.  The 
schools  of  Prussia  have  been  perfected  gradually  from  1813,  the  date 
of  the  completion  of  the  reorganization  of  the  system  of  education. 

With  this  fact  in  mind  we  do  not  expect  to  find  such  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  in  the  French  as  in  the  Pnissian  schools,  and 
are  indeed  surprised  that  comparisons,  based  on  results  attained  in 
so  short  a  time  are  so  favorable. 

There  is  no  system  of  public  instruction  which  is  not  weakened 
by  poor  schools.  I  have  heard  lessons  in  technical  grammar  in 
Kindergarten  in  Paris,  and  I  have  visited  second  and  third  rate 
schools  in  Germany.  When  pupils  have  expressed  surprise  that  as 
an  American  I  was  neither  red  nor  black,  and  asked  what  language 
was  generally  spoken  in  the  United  States,  I  have  not  drawn 
general  conclusions  as  to  faulty  methods  of  instruction  because  my 
other  visits  had  convinced  me  that  Prussian  and  French  elementary 
schools  have  attained  uniform  degrees  of  excellence  while  our 
model  elementary  schools  are  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

It  has  been  stated  by  prominent  authorities  that  the  French 
or  Prussian  child  of  12  is  about  two  years  in  advance  of  the 
American  of  the  same  age.  It  is  most  unjust  to  make  such 
comparisons  unless  they  are  accompanied  by  explanations.  It  is 
not  because  the  French  or  Prussian  pupils  have  greater  natural 
capacity  than  the  American,  but  simply  because  from  their  sixth  or 
seventh  year  of  age  they  have  been  forced  to  attend  school  regularly 
for  at  least  40  weeks  annually,  and  have  been  protected  in  school  as 
far  as  possible  from  the  imposition  of  bad  work. 

In  France  and  in  Prussia  the  laws  fix  a  minimum  of  instruction 
for  elementary  schools,  and  surround  the  schools  with  all  safe- 
guards. The  result  is  that  the  general  standard  of  the  work  accom- 
plished approaches  that  maintained  in  our  best  elementary  schools. 

In  New  York  the  laws  do  not  prescribe  the  work  for  elementary 
schools.  Each  school  is  practically  a  law  unto  itself  as  to  what 
shall  be  pursued  and  how.  Furthermore,  the  legal  school  year  is 
about  ten  weeks  shorter  than  in  Prussia  and  France,  and  attendance 
is  irregular.  The  result  is  that  our  model  elementary  schools  are 
exceptions  to  the  rule. 


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